Plastic Anisotropy and Yield Surfaces in Material Mechanics
Plastic Anisotropy:
Plastic Anisotropy:
Yield Surfaces
Yield Surfaces
27-750
Texture, Microstructure & Anisotropy
A.D. Rollett
Last revised: 23
rd
Feb. ‘16
2
Objective
•
The objective of this lecture is to
introduce you to the topic of yield
surfaces.
•
Yield surfaces are useful at both
the single crystal level (material
properties) and at the polycrystal
level (anisotropy of textured
materials).
3
Outline
•
What is a yield surface (Y.S.)?
•
2D Y.S.
•
Crystallographic slip
•
Vertices
•
Strain Direction, normality
•
π-plane
•
Symmetry
•
Rate sensitivity
Questions: 1
•
How does one define a yield surface [demarcation
between elastic and plastic response in stress space]?
•
What are two examples of yield functions commonly
used in solid mechanics of materials [Tresca and von
Mises]?
•
What is the “normality rule” [strain direction is
perpendicular to the yield surface]?
•
How do we construct the yield surface for a single slip
system [use the geometry of slip]?
•
Why does the normality rule hold exactly for single slip
[again, use the geometry of slip]?
•
How do we construct the yield surface for a polycrystal
[calculate the average Taylor factor for the set of
orientations, for each strain direction in the relevant
stress space]?
4
Questions: 2
•
Which yield surface (YS) is the Cauchy plane YS [two
principal stresses]?
•
Which is the “pi-plane YS” [stresses in the plane
perpendicular to the mean/hydrostatic stress direction]?
•
What is a YS vertex [location where the strain direction
changes sharply, most noticeable on single xtal yield
surfaces]?
•
What effect does rate sensitivity have on the yield
surface of single and poly-crystals [a finite rate
sensitivity serves to round off the vertices present in
single xtal YSs and thus also rounds off polycrystal
YSs]?
•
What effect does sample symmetry have on
(polycrystal) yield surfaces [sample symmetry ensures
that certain components of strain must be zero if the
corresponding stress component is zero]?
5
Questions: 3
•
What is the “r-value” or “Lankford parameter” [the r-
value is the ratio of the two transverse strain
components that are measured during a tensile strain
test]?
•
How does the r-value relate to a yield surface, or how
can we compute the r-value based on a knowledge of
the yield surface [the r-value depends on the ratio of
two components of normal strain, so it is determined by
the strain direction at the point on the yield surface that
corresponds to the loading direction]?
•
In the pi-plane, what shape corresponds to an isotropic
material, and what shape corresponds to a random
cubic polycrystal [isotropic is a circle, and a random
polycrystal lies between the von Mises circle and
Tresca]?
6
7
Bibliography
•
K
o
c
k
s
,
U
.
F
.
,
C
.
T
o
m
é
,
H
.
-
R
.
W
e
n
k
,
E
d
s
.
(
1
9
9
8
)
.
T
e
x
t
u
r
e
a
n
d
A
n
i
s
o
t
r
o
p
y
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
U
n
i
v
e
r
s
i
t
y
P
r
e
s
s
,
C
a
m
b
r
i
d
g
e
,
U
K
.
•
W. Hosford (1993),
The Mechanics of Crystals and
Textured Polycrystals
, Oxford Univ. Press.
•
W. Backofen 1972),
Deformation Processing
,
Addison-
Wesley Longman,
ISBN 0201003880
.
•
Reid, C. N. (1973),
Deformation Geometry for Materials
Scientists
. Oxford, UK, Pergamon.
•
Khan and Huang (1999), Continuum Theory of
Plasticity, ISBN: 0-471-31043-3, Wiley.
•
Nye, J. F. (1957).
Physical Properties of Crystals
.
Oxford, Clarendon Press.
•
T. Courtney,
Mechanical Behavior of Materials
,
McGraw-Hill, 0-07-013265-8, 620.11292 C86M.
8
Yield Surface definition
•
A Yield Surface is a map in stress
space, in which an inner envelope is
drawn to demarcate non-yielded
regions from yielded (flowing) regions.
The most important feature of single
crystal yield surfaces is that
crystallographic slip (single system)
defines a straight line in stress space
and that the straining direction is
perpendicular (normal) to that line.
9
Plastic potential
Yield Surface
•
One can define a
plastic potential
,
,
whose differential with respect to the
stress deviator provides the strain rate.
By definition, the strain rate is normal to
the iso-potential surface.
Provided that the critical resolved shear stress (also in the sense of
the rate-sensitive reference stress) is not dependent on the current
stress state, then the plastic potential and the yield surface (defined
by
crss
) are equivalent. If the yield depends on the hydrostatic
stress, for example, then the two may not correspond exactly.
10
Yield surfaces: introduction
•
The best way to learn about yield
surfaces is think of them as a
graphical construction.
•
A
yield surface
is the boundary
between elastic and plastic flow.
Example: tensile stress
11
2D yield surfaces
•
Yield surfaces can be defined in two
dimensions.
•
Consider a combination of
(independent) yield on two different
axes.
The material
is elastic if
1
<
1y
and
2
<
2y
12
2D yield surfaces, contd.
•
The Tresca yield criterion is familiar
from mechanics of materials:
The material
is elastic if the
difference
between the 2
principal
stresses is
less
than a critical
value
,
k
,
which is a
maximum
shear stress.
13
2D yield surfaces, contd.
•
Graphical representations of yield surfaces
are generally simplified to the envelope of the
demarcation line
between elastic and plastic.
Thus it appears as a
polygonal or
curved object that
is closed and
convex (hence
the term
convex
hull
is applied).
•
This plot shows
both the Tresca
and the von Mises
criteria.
elastic
plastic
=
yield
14
Crystallographic slip:
a single system
•
Now that we understand the concept of
a yield surface we can apply it to
crystallographic slip.
•
The result of slip
on a single system
is strain in a single
direction, which
appears as a straight
line on the Y.S.
[Kocks]
15
A single slip system
•
Yield criterion for single slip:
b
i
ij
n
j
crss
•
In 2D this becomes (
1
:
b
1
1
n
1
+ b
2
2
n
2
crss
The second
equation defines
a straight line
connecting the
intercepts
16
A single slip system: strain direction
•
Now we can ask, what is the straining
direction?
•
The strain increment is given by:
d
=
s
d
(s)
b
(s)
n
(s)
which in our 2D case becomes:
d
1
= d
b
1
n
1
; d
2
= d
b
2
n
2
•
This defines a vector that is
perpendicular to the line for yield!
2
= (
constant
-
b
1
1
n
1
)/(b
2
n
2
)
17
Single system: normality
• We can draw the straining direction in the
same space as the stress.
• The fact that the strain is perpendicular to
the yield surface is a demonstration of the
normality rule
for crystallographic slip.
18
Drucker’s Postulate
•
We have demonstrated that the physics
of crystallographic slip guarantees
normality of plastic flow.
•
Drucker (d. 2001) showed that plastic
solids in general must obey the
normality rule. This in turn means that
the yield surface must be convex.
Crystallographic slip also guarantees
convexity of polycrystal yield surfaces.
•
Details on Drucker’s Postulate in
supplemental slides.
19
Vertices on the Y.S.
•
Based on the normality rule, we can
now examine what happens at the
corners, or vertices, of a Y.S.
•
The single slip conditions on either side
of a vertex define limits on the straining
direction:
at the vertex
, the straining
direction can lie anywhere in between
these limits.
•
Thus, we speak of a
cone of normals
at
a vertex.
20
Cone of normals
d
a
d
b
Vertex
[Kocks]
Cone of normals: the straining direction can lie
anywhere within the cone
21
Single crystal Y.S.
•
Cube
component:
(001)[100]
•
Backofen
Deformation
Processing
8-fold vertex
The 8-fold vertex identified is one of the 28 Bishop & Hill stress states
22
Single crystal Y.S.: 2
•
Goss
component:
(110)[001]
•
From the
thesis work
of Prof.
Piehler
8-fold vertex
Backofen:
Deformation Processing
23
Single crystal Y.S.: 3
Copper:
(111)[112]
6-fold vertex
Backofen:
Deformation Processing
24
Polycrystal Yield Surfaces
•
As discussed in the notes about
how to use LApp, the method of
calculation of a polycrystal Y.S. is
simple. Each point on the Y.S.
corresponds to a particular
straining direction: the stress state
of the polycrystal is the average of
the stresses in the individual
grains.
25
Polycrystal Y.S. construction
•
2 methods commonly used:
–
(a) locus of yield points in stress
space
–
(b) convex hull of tangents
•
Yield point loci is straightforward:
simply plot the stress in 2D (or
higher) space.
26
Tangent construction
(1) Draw a line from the origin parallel to
the applied strain direction.
(2) Locate the distance from the origin by
the average Taylor factor.
(3) Draw a perpendicular to the radius.
(4) Repeat for all strain directions of
interest.
(5) The
yield surface
is the inner
envelope of the tangent lines.
27
Tangent construction: 2
d
<M>
[Kocks]
28
The “pi-plane” Y.S.
•
A particularly useful yield surface is the
so-called π-plane, i.e. the projection
down the line corresponding to pure
hydrostatic stress (all 3 principal
stresses equal). For an isotropic
material, the π-plane has 120°
rotational symmetry with mirrors such
that only a 60° sector is required (as
the fundamental zone). For the von
Mises criterion, the π-plane Y.S. is a
circle.
29
Principal Stress <-> π-plane
Hosford: mechanics of crystals...
30
Isotropic material
Note that an
isotropic material
has a Y.S. in
between the
Tresca and the
von Mises
surfaces
[Kocks]
31
Y.S. for textured polycrystal
Kocks: Ch.10
Note sharp
vertices for
strong textures
at large strains.
[Kocks]
32
Symmetry & the Y.S.
•
W
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)
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(
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,
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=
F
(
S
)
33
Effect on stimulus (stress)
•
The non-linearity of the property (plastic flow) means
that care is needed in applying symmetry because we
are concerned not with the coefficients of a linear
property tensor but with the existence of non-zero
coefficients in a response (to a stimulus). That is to
say, we cannot apply the symmetry element directly to
the property because the non-linearity means that
(potentially) an infinity of higher order terms exist. The
action of a symmetry operator, however, means that we
can examine the following special case. If the field
takes a certain form in terms of its coefficients then the
symmetry operator leaves it unchanged and we can
write:
S
=
O
S
O
T
Note that the application of symmetry operators to a second rank
tensor, such as deviatoric stress, is exactly equivalent to the
standard tensor transformation rule:
34
Response(Field)
•
Then we can insert this into the relation
between the response and the field:
O
D
O
T
=
F
(
O
S
O
T
) =
F
(
S
) =
D
The resulting identity between the
strain and the result of the symmetry
operator on the strain then requires
similar constraints on the coefficients of
the strain tensor.
35
Example: mirror on Y
•
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36
Mirror on Y: 2
•
Consider the equation above: any
stress state for which
12
and
23
are
zero will satisfy the following relation
for the action of the symmetry element
(in this case a mirror on Y):
O
S
O
T
= S
37
Mirror on Y: 2
•
Provided the stress obeys this relation,
then the relation
O
DO
T
=
D
also holds.
Based on the second equation quoted
from Kocks, we can see that only strain
states for which
D
12
and
D
23
= 0
will
satisfy this equation.
38
Symmetry: summary
•
Thus we have demonstrated with an
example that stress states that obey a
symmetry element generate straining
directions that also obey the symmetry
element. More importantly, the yield
surface for stress states obeying the
symmetry element are closed in the
sense that they do not lead to straining
components outside that same space.
39
Rate sensitive yield
•
The rate at which dislocations move under the
influence of a shear stress (on their glide plane) is
dependent on the magnitude of the shear stress.
Turning the statement around, one can say that the
flow stress is dependent on the rate at which
dislocations move which, through the Orowan equation,
given below, means that the "critical" resolved shear
stress is dependent on the strain rate. The first figure
below illustrates this phenomenon and also makes the
point that the rate dependence is strongly non-linear in
most cases. Although the precise form of the strain
rate sensitivity is complicated if the complete range of
strain rate must be described, in the vicinity of the
macroscopically observable yield stress, it can be
easily described by a power-law relationship, where
n
is the strain rate sensitivity exponent. Here is the
Orowan equation:
40
Shear strain rate
•
The crss (
crss
)
becomes a reference
stress (as opposed to a limiting stress).
For the purposes of simulating texture,
the shear rate on each system is
normalized to a reference strain rate
and the sign of the slip rate is treated
separately from the magnitude.
41
Sign dependence
•
Note that, in principle, both the critical
resolved shear stress
and
the strain
rate exponent,
n
, can be different on
each slip system. This is, for example,
a way to model latent hardening, i.e. by
varying the crss on each system as a
function of the slip history of the
material.
42
Effect on single crystal Y.S.
Note the
“rounding-off”
of the yield
surface as a
consequence of
rate-sensitive
yield
[Kocks]
43
Rate sensitivity: summary
•
The impact of strain rate sensitivity on the single crystal
yield surface (SCYS) is then easy to recognize. The
consequence of the normalization of the strain rate is
such that if more than one slip system operates, the
resolved shear stress on each system is less than the
reference crss. Thus the second diagram, above,
shows that, in the vicinity of a vertex in the SCYS, the
yield surface is rounded off. The greater the rate
sensitivity, or the smaller the value of
n
, the greater the
degree of rounding. In most polycrystal plasticity
simulations, the value of
n
chosen to be small enough,
e.g.
n=30
, that the non-linear solvers operate efficiently,
but large enough that the texture development is not
affected. Experience with the LApp model indicates that
anisotropy and texture development are significantly
affected only when small values of the rate sensitivity
exponent are used,
n
5.
44
Plastic Strain Ratio (r-value)
Plastic Strain Ratio (r-value)
Large r
m
and small
∆
r required
for deep drawing
L
i
W
i
Rolling Direction
45°
90°
0°
45
R-value & the Y.S.
•
The r-value is a differential
property of the polycrystal yield
surface, i.e. it measures the slope
of the surface.
•
Why? The Lankford parameter is a
ratio of strain components:
r =
width
/
thickness
width
thickness
r =
slope
46
A π-plane Y.S.: fcc rolling
texture at a strain of 3
S
11
d
11
~ 0
r ~ 0
d
22
~ d
33
r ~ 1
Note: the Taylor
factors for
loading in the
RD and the TD
are nearly
equal but the
slopes are very
different!
RD
TD
ND
[Kocks]
47
How to obtain r at other angles?
•
Consider the stress system in a tensile
test in the plane of a sheet.
•
Mohr’s circle shows that a shear stress
component is required in addition to the
two principal stresses.
•
Therefore a third dimension must be
added to be standard
11
-
22
yield
surface.
48
Stress system in tensile tests
•
For a test at an arbitrary angle to the
rolling direction:
•
Note: the corresponding strain tensor
may have all non-zero components.
49
3D Y.S. for r-values
•
Think of an r-
value scan as
going “up-and-
over” the 3D
yield surface.
Hosford: Mechanics of Crystals...
50
Summary
•
Yield surfaces are an extremely useful
concept for quantifying the anisotropy
of materials.
•
Graphical representations of the Y.S.
aid in visualization of anisotropy.
•
Crystallographic slip guarantees
normality.
•
Certain types of anisotropy require
special calculations, e.g. r-value.
51
Supplemental Slides
52
Drucker’s Postulate
•
The material is said to be stable in
the sense of Drucker if the work
done by the tractions,
∆t
i
,
through
the displacements,
∆u
i
,
is positive
or zero for all
∆t
i
:
53
Drucker, contd.
•
This statement is somewhat
analogous (but not equivalent) to the
second law of thermodynamics. A
stable material is strongly dissipative.
It can be shown that, for a plastic
material to be stable in this sense, it
must satisfy the following conditions:
•
The yield surface,
f
(
ij
), must be
convex;
•
The plastic strain rate must be normal
to the yield surface;
•
The rate of strain hardening must be
positive or zero.
This lecture introduces the concept of yield surfaces in material mechanics, focusing on both single crystal and polycrystal levels. It covers topics such as defining yield surfaces, common yield functions like Tresca and von Mises, construction methods for single slip systems, and the influence of rate sensitivity and symmetry on yield surfaces. Additionally, it discusses the normality rule, strain directions, and the geometry of slip in relation to yield surfaces.
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Objective Plastic Anisotropy: Yield Surfaces Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip 27-750 vertices Texture, Microstructure & Anisotropy A.D. Rollett -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. Last revised: 23rdFeb. 16 r-value
Objective The objective of this lecture is to introduce you to the topic of yield surfaces. Yield surfaces are useful at both the single crystal level (material properties) and at the polycrystal level (anisotropy of textured materials). Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 2 r-value
Outline What is a yield surface (Y.S.)? 2D Y.S. Crystallographic slip Vertices Strain Direction, normality -plane Symmetry Rate sensitivity Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 3 r-value
Questions: 1 How does one define a yield surface [demarcation between elastic and plastic response in stress space]? What are two examples of yield functions commonly used in solid mechanics of materials [Tresca and von Mises]? What is the normality rule [strain direction is perpendicular to the yield surface]? How do we construct the yield surface for a single slip system [use the geometry of slip]? Why does the normality rule hold exactly for single slip [again, use the geometry of slip]? How do we construct the yield surface for a polycrystal [calculate the average Taylor factor for the set of orientations, for each strain direction in the relevant stress space]? Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 4 r-value
Questions: 2 Which yield surface (YS) is the Cauchy plane YS [two principal stresses]? Which is the pi-plane YS [stresses in the plane perpendicular to the mean/hydrostatic stress direction]? What is a YS vertex [location where the strain direction changes sharply, most noticeable on single xtal yield surfaces]? What effect does rate sensitivity have on the yield surface of single and poly-crystals [a finite rate sensitivity serves to round off the vertices present in single xtal YSs and thus also rounds off polycrystal YSs]? What effect does sample symmetry have on (polycrystal) yield surfaces [sample symmetry ensures that certain components of strain must be zero if the corresponding stress component is zero]? Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 5 r-value
Questions: 3 What is the r-value or Lankford parameter [the r- value is the ratio of the two transverse strain components that are measured during a tensile strain test]? How does the r-value relate to a yield surface, or how can we compute the r-value based on a knowledge of the yield surface [the r-value depends on the ratio of two components of normal strain, so it is determined by the strain direction at the point on the yield surface that corresponds to the loading direction]? In the pi-plane, what shape corresponds to an isotropic material, and what shape corresponds to a random cubic polycrystal [isotropic is a circle, and a random polycrystal lies between the von Mises circle and Tresca]? Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 6 r-value
Bibliography Kocks, U. F., C. Tom , H.-R. Wenk, Eds. (1998). Texture and Anisotropy, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. W. Hosford (1993), The Mechanics of Crystals and Textured Polycrystals, Oxford Univ. Press. W. Backofen 1972), Deformation Processing, Addison- Wesley Longman, ISBN 0201003880. Reid, C. N. (1973), Deformation Geometry for Materials Scientists. Oxford, UK, Pergamon. Khan and Huang (1999), Continuum Theory of Plasticity, ISBN: 0-471-31043-3, Wiley. Nye, J. F. (1957). Physical Properties of Crystals. Oxford, Clarendon Press. T. Courtney, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, McGraw-Hill, 0-07-013265-8, 620.11292 C86M. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 7 r-value
Yield Surface definition A Yield Surface is a map in stress space, in which an inner envelope is drawn to demarcate non-yielded regions from yielded (flowing) regions. The most important feature of single crystal yield surfaces is that crystallographic slip (single system) defines a straight line in stress space and that the straining direction is perpendicular (normal) to that line. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 8 r-value
Plastic potentialYield Surface One can define a plastic potential, , whose differential with respect to the stress deviator provides the strain rate. By definition, the strain rate is normal to the iso-potential surface. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Provided that the critical resolved shear stress (also in the sense of the rate-sensitive reference stress) is not dependent on the current stress state, then the plastic potential and the yield surface (defined by crss) are equivalent. If the yield depends on the hydrostatic stress, for example, then the two may not correspond exactly. Symmetry Rate-sens. 9 r-value
Yield surfaces: introduction The best way to learn about yield surfaces is think of them as a graphical construction. A yield surface is the boundary between elastic and plastic flow. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices Example: tensile stress =0 elastic plastic -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. = yield 10 r-value
2D yield surfaces Yield surfaces can be defined in two dimensions. Consider a combination of (independent) yield on two different axes. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. plastic The material is elastic if 1 < 1y and 2 < 2y Xtal. Slip = y plastic vertices elastic -plane Symmetry 0 Rate-sens. = y 11 r-value
2D yield surfaces, contd. The Tresca yield criterion is familiar from mechanics of materials: Objective The material is elastic if the difference between the 2 principal stresses is less than a critical value, k , which is a maximum shear stress. Outline plastic Definition = k 2D Y.S. plastic Xtal. Slip elastic vertices -plane 0 Symmetry Rate-sens. = k 12 r-value
2D yield surfaces, contd. Graphical representations of yield surfaces are generally simplified to the envelope of the demarcation line between elastic and plastic. Thus it appears as a polygonal or curved object that is closed and convex (hence the term convex hull is applied). This plot shows both the Tresca and the von Mises criteria. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices plastic -plane = yield elastic Symmetry Rate-sens. 13 r-value
Crystallographic slip: a single system Objective Now that we understand the concept of a yield surface we can apply it to crystallographic slip. The result of slip on a single system is strain in a single direction, which appears as a straight line on the Y.S. Outline Definition [Kocks] 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 14 r-value
A single slip system Yield criterion for single slip: bi ijnj crss In 2D this becomes ( 1 : b1 1n1+ b2 2n2 crss Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip The second equation defines a straight line connecting the intercepts plastic vertices crss/b2n2 -plane elastic Symmetry 0 crss/b1n1 Rate-sens. 15 r-value
A single slip system: strain direction Now we can ask, what is the straining direction? The strain increment is given by: d = s d (s)b(s)n(s) which in our 2D case becomes: d 1 = d b1n1; d 2 = d b2n2 This defines a vector that is perpendicular to the line for yield! 2= (constant - b1 1n1)/(b2n2) Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 16 r-value
Single system: normality We can draw the straining direction in the same space as the stress. The fact that the strain is perpendicular to the yield surface is a demonstration of the normality rule for crystallographic slip. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. d = d (b1n1 , b2n2) Xtal. Slip vertices crss/b2n2 plastic -plane Symmetry elastic 0 Rate-sens. crss/b1n1 17 r-value
Druckers Postulate Objective Outline We have demonstrated that the physics of crystallographic slip guarantees normality of plastic flow. Drucker (d. 2001) showed that plastic solids in general must obey the normality rule. This in turn means that the yield surface must be convex. Crystallographic slip also guarantees convexity of polycrystal yield surfaces. Details on Drucker s Postulate in supplemental slides. Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 18 r-value
Vertices on the Y.S. Based on the normality rule, we can now examine what happens at the corners, or vertices, of a Y.S. The single slip conditions on either side of a vertex define limits on the straining direction: at the vertex, the straining direction can lie anywhere in between these limits. Thus, we speak of a cone of normals at a vertex. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 19 r-value
Cone of normals Objective d a Outline Vertex Definition 2D Y.S. d b Xtal. Slip vertices [Kocks] -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. Cone of normals: the straining direction can lie anywhere within the cone 20 r-value
Single crystal Y.S. 8-fold vertex Cube component: (001)[100] Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip Backofen Deformation Processing vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. The 8-fold vertex identified is one of the 28 Bishop & Hill stress states 21 r-value
Single crystal Y.S.: 2 8-fold vertex Goss component: (110)[001] Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip From the thesis work of Prof. Piehler vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. Backofen: Deformation Processing 22 r-value
Single crystal Y.S.: 3 6-fold vertex Copper: (111)[112] Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. Backofen: Deformation Processing 23 r-value
Polycrystal Yield Surfaces As discussed in the notes about how to use LApp, the method of calculation of a polycrystal Y.S. is simple. Each point on the Y.S. corresponds to a particular straining direction: the stress state of the polycrystal is the average of the stresses in the individual grains. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 24 r-value
Polycrystal Y.S. construction 2 methods commonly used: (a) locus of yield points in stress space (b) convex hull of tangents Yield point loci is straightforward: simply plot the stress in 2D (or higher) space. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 25 r-value
Tangent construction Objective (1) Draw a line from the origin parallel to the applied strain direction. (2) Locate the distance from the origin by the average Taylor factor. (3) Draw a perpendicular to the radius. (4) Repeat for all strain directions of interest. (5) The yield surface is the inner envelope of the tangent lines. Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 26 r-value
Tangent construction: 2 Objective d Outline Definition 2D Y.S. <M> Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry [Kocks] Rate-sens. 27 r-value
The pi-plane Y.S. A particularly useful yield surface is the so-called -plane, i.e. the projection down the line corresponding to pure hydrostatic stress (all 3 principal stresses equal). For an isotropic material, the -plane has 120 rotational symmetry with mirrors such that only a 60 sector is required (as the fundamental zone). For the von Mises criterion, the -plane Y.S. is a circle. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 28 r-value
Principal Stress <-> -plane Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. Hosford: mechanics of crystals... 29 r-value
Isotropic material Objective Outline Definition Note that an isotropic material has a Y.S. in between the Tresca and the von Mises surfaces 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry [Kocks] Rate-sens. 30 r-value
Y.S. for textured polycrystal Objective Outline Kocks: Ch.10 Definition Note sharp vertices for strong textures at large strains. 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry [Kocks] Rate-sens. 31 r-value
Symmetry & the Y.S. We can write the relationship between strain (rate, D) and stress (deviator, S) as a general non- linear relation Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip D = F(S) vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 32 r-value
Effect on stimulus (stress) The non-linearity of the property (plastic flow) means that care is needed in applying symmetry because we are concerned not with the coefficients of a linear property tensor but with the existence of non-zero coefficients in a response (to a stimulus). That is to say, we cannot apply the symmetry element directly to the property because the non-linearity means that (potentially) an infinity of higher order terms exist. The action of a symmetry operator, however, means that we can examine the following special case. If the field takes a certain form in terms of its coefficients then the symmetry operator leaves it unchanged and we can write: S = OSOT Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Note that the application of symmetry operators to a second rank tensor, such as deviatoric stress, is exactly equivalent to the standard tensor transformation rule: Rate-sens. 33 r-value
Response(Field) Then we can insert this into the relation between the response and the field: ODOT = F(OSOT) =F(S) = D The resulting identity between the strain and the result of the symmetry operator on the strain then requires similar constraints on the coefficients of the strain tensor. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 34 r-value
Example: mirror on Y Kocks (p343) quotes an analysis for the action of a mirror plane (note the use of the second kind of symmetry operator here) perpendicular to sample Y to show that the subspace { , 31} is closed. That is, any combination of ii and 31 will only generate strain rate components in the same subspace, i.e. Dii and D31. The negation of the 12 and 23 components means that if these stress components are zero, then the stress deviator tensor is equal to the stress deviator under the action of the symmetry element. Then the resulting strain must also be identical to that obtained without the symmetry operator and the corresponding 12 and 23 components of D must also be zero. That is, two stresses related by this mirror must have 12 and 23 zero, which means in turn that the two related strain states must also have those components zero. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 35 r-value
Mirror on Y: 2 Objective Outline Definition Consider the equation above: any stress state for which 12 and 23 are zero will satisfy the following relation for the action of the symmetry element (in this case a mirror on Y): 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane OSOT = S Symmetry Rate-sens. 36 r-value
Mirror on Y: 2 Objective Outline Definition Provided the stress obeys this relation, then the relation ODOT = D also holds. Based on the second equation quoted from Kocks, we can see that only strain states for which D12 and D23 = 0 will satisfy this equation. 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 37 r-value
Symmetry: summary Thus we have demonstrated with an example that stress states that obey a symmetry element generate straining directions that also obey the symmetry element. More importantly, the yield surface for stress states obeying the symmetry element are closed in the sense that they do not lead to straining components outside that same space. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 38 r-value
Rate sensitive yield The rate at which dislocations move under the influence of a shear stress (on their glide plane) is dependent on the magnitude of the shear stress. Turning the statement around, one can say that the flow stress is dependent on the rate at which dislocations move which, through the Orowan equation, given below, means that the "critical" resolved shear stress is dependent on the strain rate. The first figure below illustrates this phenomenon and also makes the point that the rate dependence is strongly non-linear in most cases. Although the precise form of the strain rate sensitivity is complicated if the complete range of strain rate must be described, in the vicinity of the macroscopically observable yield stress, it can be easily described by a power-law relationship, where n is the strain rate sensitivity exponent. Here is the Orowan equation: Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 39 r-value
Shear strain rate The crss ( crss)becomes a reference stress (as opposed to a limiting stress). Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip For the purposes of simulating texture, the shear rate on each system is normalized to a reference strain rate and the sign of the slip rate is treated separately from the magnitude. vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 40 r-value
Sign dependence Note that, in principle, both the critical resolved shear stress and the strain rate exponent, n, can be different on each slip system. This is, for example, a way to model latent hardening, i.e. by varying the crss on each system as a function of the slip history of the material. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 41 r-value
Effect on single crystal Y.S. Objective Outline Note the rounding-off of the yield surface as a consequence of rate-sensitive yield Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry [Kocks] Rate-sens. 42 r-value
Rate sensitivity: summary The impact of strain rate sensitivity on the single crystal yield surface (SCYS) is then easy to recognize. The consequence of the normalization of the strain rate is such that if more than one slip system operates, the resolved shear stress on each system is less than the reference crss. Thus the second diagram, above, shows that, in the vicinity of a vertex in the SCYS, the yield surface is rounded off. The greater the rate sensitivity, or the smaller the value of n, the greater the degree of rounding. In most polycrystal plasticity simulations, the value of n chosen to be small enough, e.g. n=30, that the non-linear solvers operate efficiently, but large enough that the texture development is not affected. Experience with the LApp model indicates that anisotropy and texture development are significantly affected only when small values of the rate sensitivity exponent are used, n 5. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 43 r-value
Plastic Strain Ratio (r-value) Large rm and small r required for deep drawing Objective Outline Rolling Direction Definition 0 45 2D Y.S. Li 90 Wi Xtal. Slip ln( / ) ln( L / ) W i W Wf W Wf i i = = r vertices ln( / ) ln( / ) Ti Tf Wf L f i 1 -plane - = + + ( ) ( 2 ) r r value r 45 r 90 r 0 m 4 Symmetry 1 D - = - + ( ) ( 2 ) r planar anisotropy r 45 r 90 r 0 2 Rate-sens. 44 r-value
R-value & the Y.S. The r-value is a differential property of the polycrystal yield surface, i.e. it measures the slope of the surface. Why? The Lankford parameter is a ratio of strain components: r = width/ thickness Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry width r = slope Rate-sens. thickness 45 r-value
A -plane Y.S.: fcc rolling texture at a strain of 3 ND Objective Note: the Taylor factors for loading in the RD and the TD are nearly equal but the slopes are very different! Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices S11 RD -plane TD Symmetry d 11 ~ 0 r ~ 0 d 22 ~ d 33 r ~ 1 Rate-sens. [Kocks] 46 r-value
How to obtain r at other angles? Objective Consider the stress system in a tensile test in the plane of a sheet. Mohr s circle shows that a shear stress component is required in addition to the two principal stresses. Therefore a third dimension must be added to be standard 11- 22 yield surface. Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 47 r-value
Stress system in tensile tests For a test at an arbitrary angle to the rolling direction: s11 s12 s12 s22 0 Objective Outline 0 0 0 Definition 2D Y.S. s = Xtal. Slip 0 vertices Note: the corresponding strain tensor may have all non-zero components. -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 48 r-value
3D Y.S. for r-values Think of an r- value scan as going up-and- over the 3D yield surface. Objective Outline Definition 2D Y.S. 2s M= Xtal. Slip M a K1+ K2 vertices M +aK1- K2 -plane M +(2 - a)2K2 ( )/ 2 Symmetry K1= sxx+ hsyy ( Rate-sens. [ ] )/2 Hosford: Mechanics of Crystals... 2 K2= sxx- hsyy + p2txy 2 49 r-value
Summary Objective Yield surfaces are an extremely useful concept for quantifying the anisotropy of materials. Graphical representations of the Y.S. aid in visualization of anisotropy. Crystallographic slip guarantees normality. Certain types of anisotropy require special calculations, e.g. r-value. Outline Definition 2D Y.S. Xtal. Slip vertices -plane Symmetry Rate-sens. 50 r-value
