Empathy and Prosocial Behavior in Emotions and Perception Class
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(
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Prosocial behavior can be motivated by:
___A. Empathy
___B. Desire to look good to others
___C. Desire to look good to oneself
___D. Personal relief from others’ disturbing distress
___E. All the above
X
Review Question 1
2
The main point of Batson’s “Elayne Gets Shocked” study
was that altruism (selfless helping) can occur if:
___A. Helpers are very smart people
___B. Helpers are not in a hurry
___C. Helpers feel empathy
___D. Helpers want to feel heroic
___E. Helpers want to get a free cookie
X
Review Question 2
3
Empathy = Emotion Match + Perspective Taking
Not simply reacting to another’s emotions
Empathy ≠ Emotional Contagion
Not simply recognizing another’s distress
Empathy ≠ Personal Distress
Requires:
1. Emotions aroused by another
2. Matching between own/other’s feelings
3. Making sense of this match
Empathy
= Emotional Response +
Perspective Taking
Perspective Taking
means not only feeling what the
other is feeling but also seeing the situation as he/she does.
4
Emotional Challenge of Empathy
We use our own emotions to understand the other’s emotions.
“Affect as Information”
(Schwarz & Clore, 1996).
But need proper distance from emotions to use them.
Too emotional
overwhelmed
Too analytical
detached
Empathy = Balancing emotional openness with mental calculation.
Requires feeling and thinking, in balance.
5
Empathy and Emotional Regulation
Decety, 2010
Emotional
Understand
Emotional
Arousal
Own Emotion is
Regulation /
Response to Other
Mental Control
Emotional
Response to Other
Perspective Taking
Helpful Action
Limbic System
ACC
Insula
TPJ
Prefrontal
Cortex
Theory
of Mind
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The Ethics of Empathy
Paul Bloom, 2017
Sheri Summers is 9 years old. She had a fatal and painful disease.
There is a treatment, but it requires being on a waiting list.
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Should Sheri go to the
top of the list for treatment?
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Can Empathy Be a Bad Thing?
Paul Bloom, 2017
versus
Single Sufferer Natalee Holloway
10000s Suffering in Darfur
Cute Panda
versus
Essential Plankton
8
How Empathy for Victims Leads to Sadism to Victimizers
Bad Guy torments innocent nice people.
We empathize with victims.
Our empathy makes us dislike the bad guy.
Good Guy shows up.
He seeks to punish bad guy
We want bad guy punished.
“Go for it, Good Guy! Make our day!”
We feel good when bad thing happens to Bad Guy
Bottom line
: More empathy for
victims
Makes it OK to enjoy another
person’s (Bad Guy’s) suffering.
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10
OUTLINE OF TODAY’S CLASS
I.
How stress and anxiety affect perception
II.
How Resources improve perception
A.
What are resources
B.
The Resources and Perception Model
C.
Experiments showing how resources affect
perception
Emotions and Perception: The
New Look
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They Saw a Game
Hastorf & Cantrel,1954
.
Albert Hastorf
1921-2011
Princeton vs. Dartmouth football game. One of the nastiest on record.
Princeton fans: Dartmouth team committed way more penalties, refs were blind
Dartmouth fans: Princeton team committed way more penalties, refs were blind
11
Emotions and Perception: The
New Look
Value and need---in perception:
Bruner & Postman, 1947
Poor kid
Rich kid
What kids actually hold in their hands
Rich kid’s
judgments of
object’s size.
Poor kid’s
judgments of
object’s size.
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Fear and Perception of Height and Distance
Stefanucci, Gagnon, Tompkins, & Bullock, 2012
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Subjects imagine falling from height onto:
a.
Control: An empty pool
b.
Threat: A pool containing a bed of nails
Control subjects stood above empty pool
Threat subjects stood above nail-filled pool
TASK: How high up are you?
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Subjects imagine jump and land in:
a. Control: An empty pool or
b. Threat: A pool containing a bed of nails
Control subjects stood before empty pool
Threat subjects stood before nail-filled pool
TASK: How far is distance across pool?
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Resources and Perception Model
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Boosted resources
Depleted resources
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Psychosocial Resources
Social Support
Self Worth, Self Esteem
Self-Efficacy
Emotional Disclosure
17
Resources and Coping
Reduced depression and anxiety
Reduced cardiovascular response to stress
Reduced levels of norepinephrine, epinephrine, cortisol
Better immune functioning
Fewer colds, fewer heart attacks, quicker recovery
post-MI, reduced cancer, easier childbirth, etc.
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Emotional Support and
Mortality After Heart Attack
(Berkman et al., 1992)
Resources and Perception Theory
If stress amplifies perception
And if resources reduce stress
Then more resources
19
Resources and Perception Program
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:
Social Perception
– others’ distress
Visual Perception
– steepness, distance, height
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Friend
: Image the best person in your life (to boost support)
Neutral Person
: Image a neutral person you know (support is unchanged)
Betrayer
: Image someone who betrayed you (to weaken support)
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Social Context and Emotional Disclosure
on Baby Cry Ratings
Subjects who thought about a friend heard the cries as least distressed
Subjects who thought about a betrayer heard the cries as most distressed.
Emotional Disclosure
What happens if subjects who could disclose their thoughts and feelings?
22
For “Betrayer” subjects who could disclose feelings of being betrayed,
baby cries are no longer amplified.
Disclosure boosted resources, counteracted the bad effects of recalling a
betrayer, and thereby judgments of the baby became less extreme.
Social Context and Emotional Disclosure
on Baby Cry Ratings
23
Friend
Neutral
Betrayer
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Do resource affect our visual perception?
Do we literally see things differently under ample vs. depleted
resources?
Do resources affect accuracy of perception?
Baby cry studies do not address accuracy.
Do resources other than social support affect perception?
24
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5
Conscious slant perception of hills is
exaggerated (5% is seen as 20%, etc.).
Slant distortion is lessened under lower
physical load
-- Light back pack vs. heavy back pack
-- Physically refreshed vs. fatigued
-- Good physical cond. vs. poor cond.
-- Younger vs. older
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Study 1: Do hills appear different when
alone vs. with a friend?
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Alone (n = 14)
Same-sex friend pairs (n = 17; both participate)
All wear heavy backpack, face steep hill
M
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Verbal:
“How steep is this hill, in degrees?”
Visual Judgment
: hand protractor
Haptic
: palm board
Hand protractor
Palm board
26
Social Support and Slant
Being with a friend leads to less exaggerated, more accurate hill-slant perception
Verbal measure: “How many degrees is the hill slant?”
Visual measure: The protractor-device subjects used to show how steep the hill looked.
No difference on Haptic measure: The palm board capturing how their “body” saw the hill.
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Effects of Friendship Duration and
Mood on Slant Perception
F
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D
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(in months)
Verbal
r
= -.49
, p
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Visual
r
= -.50,
p
< .05
Haptic
r
= -.14,
p
= ns
M
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d
(negative)
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r
= -.01
, p
= ns
Visual
r
= -.13,
p
= ns
Haptic
r
= .01,
p
= ns
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Study 1 Alternative Explanations
Study 2 fixes these problems: “Just think about a
good friend, a neutral person, a bad person”.
n
= 36, 49% female
Imaged other: Think about Positive, Neutral, or Negative Person
Random Assignment
Instrumental Support Social Desirability
Social Facilitation
Sampling Bias
29
Slant Study 2:
Imaged Support and Slant Perception
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1
:
People who recall a friend see hill as less steep, and more accurately, than those who
thought about a neutral person or a nasty person.
Can’t be due to wanting to impress friend, or hoping to be rescued by friend, or being
aroused by friend—because NO FRIEND IS ACTUALLY THERE!
30
Correlations Between Relationship
Quality and Slant Perception
Verbal
Visual
Haptic
Measure Measure Measure
Close
-.37*
-.36*
.10
Warm
-.33*
-.28
.22
Happy
-.39*
-.20
.12
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(
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)
Will psychosocial resources affect
distance perception?
Will self-worth serve as resource?
32
S
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f
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I
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d
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Boosted:
Imagine
best success
Unchanged:
Imagine
doing laundry
Depleted:
Imagine
worst failure
N
= 107, 63% female
33
Distance Estimation Task
1.
Subjects put face in chin rest; room lights go off and table lights go on.
2.
Turned the handle on fishing reel to pull clear plastic car (at far end of track) to
their face.
3.
Reported how far the car was from them a the yellow, green, and pink tabs.
34
Target Objects
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H
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T
h
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a
t
Plastic car contain a live tarantula
35
36
Resources and Distance Perception
Study Design
Distance Accuracy as for Low Threat (Cat Toy) Subjects,
Due to Positive, Neutral, Negative Self-Image
This graph shows that self-image conditions did not differ for subjects in the cat
toy (low threat) condition.
Note that a score of “0” means perfect accuracy, no exaggerated closeness. A
score of 6 (for example) means the car was seen 6 inches closer than it was.
37
Distance Accuracy as for High Threat (Tarantula)
Subjects, Due to Positive, Neutral, Negative Self-Image
This graph shows that self-image conditions did affect subjects in the tarantula
high threat) condition.
“Tarantula” subjects who affirmed their selves were super accurate—even more
accurate than the “Cat toy” Subjects. But Tarantula subjects who dis-affirmed
their selves exaggerated closeness to the tarantula.
Recall that “0” means no difference between perceived distance and actual
distance.
38
Evidence of Self-Worth Moderation
Tarantula
Distance
Neutral Object
Distance
Subjects who felt better about themselves saw the tarantula as further away (and more accurately).
Subjects who felt worse about themselves saw the tarantula a closer (and less accurately).
Feeling good or bad about oneself had no effect on perceptions of the neutral cat toy.
39
N = XXX, XX% female, age = XX.XX
PHOTO LOOKING DOWN STAIRWELL
Self Esteem, External Support, and Height Judgments
Harber, Iacovelli, & Yeung, 2012 (Study 2)
40
Do resources moderate
height judgments?
Does trait self esteem
operate as a resource?
Do internal resources
supplement external
resources?
Note that this subject has a physical resource she can draw upon:
The handrail which gives her a feeling of security.
What if she didn’t have this physical resource?
HANDRAIL
41
Here’s what it looked like for subjects in the “no physical resource” condition.
They had to look down without being able to hold the handrail.
42
Self Esteem, External Support,
and Height Perception
This graph shows that for subjects with the resource of high self-esteem, holding
or not holding the handrail made little difference.
Both groups were equally, and quite, accurate in their height perceptions.
Actual height
43
Self Esteem, External Support,
and Height Perception
This graph shows that the handrail mattered much more for low esteem subjects.
Low esteem subjects who COULD hold the handrail did fine. Perception was very accurate.
BUT, low esteem subjects who COULD NOT hold the handrail were very inaccurate.
44
C
o
n
c
l
u
s
i
o
n
s
Resources affect the perception of :
Others’ distress (baby cries)
Distance to stressors (tarantulas)
Heights
Hill slants
Similar effects derive from different resources:
Social support
(baby cries, hill slant)
Emotional disclosure
(baby cries)
Self worth
(distance to tarantula)
Self esteem
(height)
Resources may enhance coping by moderating stressor perception
45
This content delves into the concepts of empathy, emotional regulation, and the ethics of empathy in relation to prosocial behavior. It explores how empathy involves emotional response and perspective taking, the challenges of balancing emotions and mental calculation, and the ethical dilemmas surrounding empathy in healthcare decisions. The content emphasizes the importance of understanding emotions and perspectives to foster altruistic actions and ethical decision-making.
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Emotions and Perception Class 18 (Diary 4)
Review Question 1 Prosocial behavior can be motivated by: ___A. Empathy ___B. Desire to look good to others ___C. Desire to look good to oneself ___D. Personal relief from others disturbing distress ___E. All the above X 2
Review Question 2 The main point of Batson s Elayne Gets Shocked study was that altruism (selfless helping) can occur if: ___A. Helpers are very smart people ___B. Helpers are not in a hurry ___C. Helpers feel empathy ___D. Helpers want to feel heroic ___E. Helpers want to get a free cookie X 3
Empathy = Emotion Match + Perspective Taking Not simply reacting to another s emotions Empathy Emotional Contagion Not simply recognizing another s distress Empathy Personal Distress Requires: 1. Emotions aroused by another 2. Matching between own/other s feelings 3. Making sense of this match Empathy = Emotional Response + Perspective Taking Perspective Taking means not only feeling what the other is feeling but also seeing the situation as he/she does. 4
Emotional Challenge of Empathy We use our own emotions to understand the other s emotions. Affect as Information (Schwarz & Clore, 1996). But need proper distance from emotions to use them. Empathy = Balancing emotional openness with mental calculation. Requires feeling and thinking, in balance. Too emotional overwhelmed Too analytical detached 5
Empathy and Emotional Regulation Decety, 2010 Emotional Understand Arousal Emotional Response to Other Limbic System ACC Insula Emotional + + Own Emotion is Regulation / Response to Other Mental Control + Perspective Taking Helpful Action Theory of Mind + + + Prefrontal Cortex TPJ LIMBIC SYSTEM INSULA TPJ PREFRONTAL CORTEX 6 ACC
The Ethics of Empathy Paul Bloom, 2017 Sheri Summers is 9 years old. She had a fatal and painful disease. There is a treatment, but it requires being on a waiting list. Patient Perspective: Take a minute and think about being Sheri; Being scared, in pain, seeing the fear in your parents eyes. Wondering what will happen to you. OR MD Perspective: Take a minute and think about being the chief of medicine, wanting to do the right thing for all your patients. Patient Perspective: YES MD Perspective: NO Should Sheri go to the top of the list for treatment? 7
Can Empathy Be a Bad Thing? Paul Bloom, 2017 versus Single Sufferer Natalee Holloway 10000s Suffering in Darfur versus Cute Panda Essential Plankton 8
How Empathy for Victims Leads to Sadism to Victimizers Bad Guy torments innocent nice people. We empathize with victims. Our empathy makes us dislike the bad guy. Good Guy shows up. He seeks to punish bad guy We want bad guy punished. Go for it, Good Guy! Make our day! We feel good when bad thing happens to Bad Guy Bottom line: More empathy for victims less empathy for victimizer. Makes it OK to enjoy another person s (Bad Guy s) suffering. 9
OUTLINE OF TODAYS CLASS I. How stress and anxiety affect perception II. How Resources improve perception A. What are resources B. The Resources and Perception Model C. Experiments showing how resources affect perception 10
Emotions and Perception: The New Look New Look research: Late 1940s early 1960s Basic Idea: Your emotions, needs, goals affect how you literally perceive things: How you see, hear, feel, taste things. They Saw a Game Hastorf & Cantrel,1954. Albert Hastorf 1921-2011 Princeton vs. Dartmouth football game. One of the nastiest on record. Princeton fans: Dartmouth team committed way more penalties, refs were blind Dartmouth fans: Princeton team committed way more penalties, refs were blind 11
Emotions and Perception: The New Look Value and need---in perception: Bruner & Postman, 1947 What kids actually hold in their hands Rich kid s judgments of object s size. Rich kid Poor kid s judgments of object s size. Poor kid 12
Fear and Perception of Height and Distance Stefanucci, Gagnon, Tompkins, & Bullock, 2012 Study 1 Subjects imagine falling from height onto: a. Control: An empty pool b. Threat: A pool containing a bed of nails Control subjects stood above empty pool Threat subjects stood above nail-filled pool TASK: How high up are you? Study 2 Subjects imagine jump and land in: a. Control: An empty pool or b. Threat: A pool containing a bed of nails Control subjects stood before empty pool Threat subjects stood before nail-filled pool TASK: How far is distance across pool? 13
e i m a t t O v e r e s A m o u n t 14
Resources and Perception Model Challenging things negative arousal amplified percept. Psychological resources reduce negative arousal. Resources should moderate perception of challenging things. Boosted resources less amplified perception Depleted resources more amplified perception 15
Psychosocial Resources Social Support Self Worth, Self Esteem Self-Efficacy Emotional Disclosure 16
Resources and Coping Reduced depression and anxiety Reduced cardiovascular response to stress Reduced levels of norepinephrine, epinephrine, cortisol Better immune functioning Fewer colds, fewer heart attacks, quicker recovery post-MI, reduced cancer, easier childbirth, etc. 17
Emotional Support and Mortality After Heart Attack (Berkman et al., 1992) 40% Mortality Rate 30% 20% 10% 0% Emotional Support Absent Emotional Support Present 18
Resources and Perception Theory If stress amplifies perception And if resources reduce stress Then more resources more accurate perception. 19
Resources and Perception Program Resources will moderate: Social Perception others distress Visual Perception steepness, distance, height 20
Social Perception and Cry Ratings Harber, Einav, & Lang, (2008). European J. Social Psych, 38, 296-314. Social contact manipulation: Guided imagery task Friend: Image the best person in your life (to boost support) Neutral Person: Image a neutral person you know (support is unchanged) Betrayer: Image someone who betrayed you (to weaken support) Listen to and Rate 8 baby cries. How distressed is the baby based on this cry? 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 A Great Degree Not at All 21
Social Context and Emotional Disclosure on Baby Cry Ratings 4.6 4.4 Cry Ratings 4.2 Suppress Disclose 4 3.8 3.6 Friend Neutral Person Betrayer Subjects who thought about a friend heard the cries as least distressed Subjects who thought about a betrayer heard the cries as most distressed. Emotional Disclosure What happens if subjects who could disclose their thoughts and feelings? 22
Social Context and Emotional Disclosure on Baby Cry Ratings 4.6 4.4 Cry Ratings 4.2 Suppress Disclose 4 3.8 3.6 Friend Neutral Betrayer For Betrayer subjects who could disclose feelings of being betrayed, baby cries are no longer amplified. Disclosure boosted resources, counteracted the bad effects of recalling a betrayer, and thereby judgments of the baby became less extreme. 23
Psychosocial Resources and Physical Perception Do resource affect our visual perception? Do we literally see things differently under ample vs. depleted resources? Do resources affect accuracy of perception? Baby cry studies do not address accuracy. Do resources other than social support affect perception? 24
Social Support and Slant Perception Schnall, Harber, Stefanucci, & Proffitt (2008). Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 1246-1255 Conscious slant perception of hills is exaggerated (5% is seen as 20%, etc.). Slant distortion is lessened under lower physical load -- Light back pack vs. heavy back pack -- Physically refreshed vs. fatigued -- Good physical cond. vs. poor cond. -- Younger vs. older Is slant distortion reduced under lower psychological load? 25
Study 1: Do hills appear different when alone vs. with a friend? Participants Passersby at campus walk Alone (n = 14) Same-sex friend pairs (n = 17; both participate) All wear heavy backpack, face steep hill Hand protractor Measures Verbal: How steep is this hill, in degrees? Visual Judgment: hand protractor Haptic: palm board Palm board 26
Social Support and Slant 70 60 50 40 Alone With Friend 30 20 10 0 Note: Line shows actual slant Verbal Visual Haptic Being with a friend leads to less exaggerated, more accurate hill-slant perception Verbal measure: How many degrees is the hill slant? Visual measure: The protractor-device subjects used to show how steep the hill looked. No difference on Haptic measure: The palm board capturing how their body saw the hill. 27
Effects of Friendship Duration and Mood on Slant Perception Friendship Duration (in months) Mood (negative) Verbal r = -.49, p < .05 Visual r = -.50, p < .05 Haptic r = -.14, p = ns Verbal r = -.01, p = ns Visual r = -.13, p = ns Haptic r = .01, p = ns Friendship duration mattered: The longer you knew your friend, the less steep the hill appeared. Mood did not matter: Being in a worse or better mood had no effect on hill slant perception. 28
Study 1 Alternative Explanations Instrumental Support Social Desirability Social Facilitation Sampling Bias Study 2 fixes these problems: Just think about a good friend, a neutral person, a bad person . n = 36, 49% female Imaged other: Think about Positive, Neutral, or Negative Person Random Assignment 29
Slant Study 2: Imaged Support and Slant Perception 70 60 50 Positive Neutral Negative Degrees 40 30 20 Note: Line shows actual slant 10 Verbal Visual Haptic Measure Results mirror Study 1: People who recall a friend see hill as less steep, and more accurately, than those who thought about a neutral person or a nasty person. Can t be due to wanting to impress friend, or hoping to be rescued by friend, or being aroused by friend because NO FRIEND IS ACTUALLY THERE! 30
Correlations Between Relationship Quality and Slant Perception Verbal Visual Haptic Measure Measure Measure Close -.37* -.36* .10 Warm -.33* -.28 .22 Happy -.39* -.20 .12 Friendship closeness mattered: The closer you felt toward the person you thought about, the less steep the hill appeared. Mood did not matter: Being in a worse or better mood had no effect on hill slant perception. 31
Resources and Distance Perception Harber, Iacovelli, & Yeung, 2012 (Study 1) Will psychosocial resources affect distance perception? Will self-worth serve as resource? 32
Self Worth Induction Boosted: Imagine best success Unchanged: Imagine doing laundry Depleted: Imagine worst failure N = 107, 63% female 33
Distance Estimation Task 1. 2. Subjects put face in chin rest; room lights go off and table lights go on. Turned the handle on fishing reel to pull clear plastic car (at far end of track) to their face. Reported how far the car was from them a the yellow, green, and pink tabs. 3. 34
Target Objects Low Threat High Threat Plasticcar contains cute cat toy. Plastic car contain a live tarantula 35
Resources and Distance Perception Study Design Positive Self- Worth Neutral Self- Worth Negative Self- Worth Cat Toy No Diff No Diff No Diff Tarantula Accurate (Correct Distance) Average Inaccurate (Overly Close) (A Bit Too Close) 36
Distance Accuracy as for Low Threat (Cat Toy) Subjects, Due to Positive, Neutral, Negative Self-Image 8 7 Exaggerated Closeness 6 5 Tarantula Cat Toy 4 3 2 1 0 Positive Neutral Negative This graph shows that self-image conditions did not differ for subjects in the cat toy (low threat) condition. Note that a score of 0 means perfect accuracy, no exaggerated closeness. A score of 6 (for example) means the car was seen 6 inches closer than it was. 37
Distance Accuracy as for High Threat (Tarantula) Subjects, Due to Positive, Neutral, Negative Self-Image 8 7 Exaggerated Closeness 6 5 Tarantula Cat Toy 4 3 2 1 0 Positive Neutral Negative This graph shows that self-image conditions did affect subjects in the tarantula high threat) condition. Tarantula subjects who affirmed their selves were super accurate even more accurate than the Cat toy Subjects. But Tarantula subjects who dis-affirmed their selves exaggerated closeness to the tarantula. Recall that 0 means no difference between perceived distance and actual distance. 38
Evidence of Self-Worth Moderation Neutral Object Distance Tarantula Distance Felt good about self r (55) = -.27 * r (48) = -.01 Felt bad about self r (55) = +.31 * r (48) = .13 Subjects who felt better about themselves saw the tarantula as further away (and more accurately). Subjects who felt worse about themselves saw the tarantula a closer (and less accurately). Feeling good or bad about oneself had no effect on perceptions of the neutral cat toy. 39
Self Esteem, External Support, and Height Judgments Harber, Iacovelli, & Yeung, 2012 (Study 2) PHOTO LOOKING DOWN STAIRWELL N = XXX, XX% female, age = XX.XX 40
Do resources moderate height judgments? Does trait self esteem operate as a resource? Do internal resources supplement external resources? Note that this subject has a physical resource she can draw upon: The handrail which gives her a feeling of security. What if she didn t have this physical resource? HANDRAIL 41
Heres what it looked like for subjects in the no physical resource condition. They had to look down without being able to hold the handrail. 42
Self Esteem, External Support, and Height Perception 140 120 100 Height in Feet 80 High Esteem Low Esteem 60 40 Actual height 20 0 Hands on Rail Hands Taped This graph shows that for subjects with the resource of high self-esteem, holding or not holding the handrail made little difference. Both groups were equally, and quite, accurate in their height perceptions. 43
Self Esteem, External Support, and Height Perception 140 120 100 Height in Feet 80 High Esteem Low Esteem 60 40 20 0 Hands on Rail Hands Taped This graph shows that the handrail mattered much more for low esteem subjects. Low esteem subjects who COULD hold the handrail did fine. Perception was very accurate. BUT, low esteem subjects who COULD NOT hold the handrail were very inaccurate. 44
Conclusions Resources affect the perception of : Others distress (baby cries) Distance to stressors (tarantulas) Heights Hill slants Similar effects derive from different resources: Social support (baby cries, hill slant) (baby cries) (distance to tarantula) (height) Emotional disclosure Self worth Self esteem Resources may enhance coping by moderating stressor perception 45
