Persuasion and Manipulation in Communication
Persuasion
per·suade
to prevail on (a person)
to do something, as by
advising or urging: We
could not persuade him
to wait.
to induce to believe by
appealing to reason or
understanding;
convince: to persuade
the judge of the
prisoner's innocence
Manipulation
ma·nip·u·late
to manage or
influence skillfully,
esp. in an unfair
manner: to
manipulate people's
feelings.
to adapt or change
(accounts, figures,
etc.) to suit one's
purpose or advantage.
http://dictionary.reference.
com
What examples of persuasion do you see?
How is one person manipulating the other?
How is the persuasion and manipulation
affecting choice?
How do authors persuade us of their point of
view?
How do we evaluate the quality of an
argument?
How do we spot logical fallacies?
How do we discern tone and how does the
correct reading of tone change our
understanding of the author’s purpose?
◦
It’s all around us – in conversations, in movies, in
advertisements and books
◦
Aristotle
:
“Rhetoric may be defined as the faculty of
observing in any given case the available means of
persuasion.”
◦
Rhetoric
is the art of language – of using its resources
effectively and usually with a certain goal in mind.
Resources include: word choice, any and all figures of
speech, and structure of composition.
◦
The Rhetorical Triangle:
Subject, Audience, Speaker’s Persona
The Rhetorical Triangle
The Rhetorical Triangle
Speaker
Speaker
Audience
Audience
Subject
Subject
When considering the subject, the writer/speaker
evaluates what he/she already knows and needs
to know, investigates perspectives, and
determines the kinds of evidence or proofs that
seem most useful.
When considering the audience, the writer or
speaker speculates about the reader’s
expectations, knowledge and disposition with
regard to the subject.
Speakers/writers use their experiences and
observations
Use who they are, what they know and feel, and
what they’ve seen and done to find their attitudes
toward a subject and their understanding of a
reader.
How we, the reader, characterize the speaker
based upon their language.
Persona
– the character the speaker creates as he
or she writes or speaks -
voice
There are two other elements of the rhetorical
situation - the
context
in which writing or
speaking occurs and the emerging aim or
purpose
that underlies many of the writer’s
decisions.
Rhetoric is situational – it has
context
– the
occasion or the time and place it was written or
spoken.
Rhetoric has a
purpose
– a goal that the speaker
or writer wants to achieve.
Logos
Logos
Writers appeal to a reader’s sense of
logos
when
they offer
clear, reasonable premises and proofs
,
when they develop ideas with appropriate
details
;
these details and proofs help the readers to
follow the progression of ideas.
Writers use logos to inform speaker’s decisions
and readers’ responses
Ethos
Ethos
Writers use ethos when they demonstrate that
they are
credible, good-willed, and
knowledgeable
about their subjects
Writers connect their thinking to reader’s own
ethical or moral beliefs in that you, the reader,
believe and trust this writer to be credible, good-
willed, and knowledgeable, and want to continue
listening.
Pathos
Pathos
When writers
draw on the emotions
and interests
of readers, and highlight them, they use
pathos
.
Use of
personal stories
or observations to
provoke readers’
sympathetic
reaction.
Figurative language
is often used to heighten the
emotional connections
readers make to the
subject.
"Fans, for the past two weeks you have been reading about the bad break I got. Yet today I
consider myself the luckiest man on the face of this earth. I have been in ballparks for
seventeen years and have never received anything but kindness and encouragement from you
fans.
"Look at these grand men. Which of you wouldn't consider it the highlight of his career just to
associate with them for even one day? Sure, I'm lucky. Who wouldn't consider it an honor to
have known Jacob Ruppert? Also, the builder of baseball's greatest empire, Ed Barrow? To
have spent six years with that wonderful little fellow, Miller Huggins? Then to have spent the
next nine years with that outstanding leader, that smart student of psychology, the best
manager in baseball today, Joe McCarthy? Sure, I'm lucky.
"When the New York Giants, a team you would give your right arm to beat, and vice versa,
sends you a gift - that's something. When everybody down to the groundskeepers and those
boys in white coats remember you with trophies - that's something. When you have a
wonderful mother-in-law who takes sides with you in squabbles with her own daughter -
that's something. When you have a father and a mother who work all their lives so you can
have an education and build your body - it's a blessing. When you have a wife who has been a
tower of strength and shown more courage than you dreamed existed - that's the finest I know.
"So I close in saying that I may have had a tough break, but I have an awful lot to live for."
Context & Purpose:
Speaker, Audience, Subject:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qswig8dcEAY
The Appeals: Logos, Pathos, Ethos:
The goal of an argument is to strengthen or
weaken rather than overturn one’s
convictions/thoughts/beliefs
An argument is…
o
a way of establishing and testing out ideas
o
an activity that helps us form our beliefs and
determine our actions
o
a process of discussion and deliberation rather
than a contest of opposites
Rhetoric is the way to connect intentions with
responses, the way to reconcile readers and
writers.
Investigating how readers perceive intentions
exposes where and how communication
happens or is lost.
Intention is sometimes embodied in a thesis
statement – but intention is carried out
throughout a piece and it often changes.
S
S
peaker
O
O
ccasion
A
A
udience
P
P
urpose
S
S
ubject
T
T
one
An acronym for a series of questions that
students must first ask themselves, and then
answer, as they begin to plan their essays
Who
is the
S
peaker?
◦
The voice that tells the story –Who are you? What details will you
reveal? Why is it important that the audience know who you are?
What
is the
O
ccasion?
o
The time and place of the piece: the context that prompted the
writing – How does your knowledge of the larger occasion and
the immediate occasion affect what you are writing about?
o
Larger Occasion
– an environment of ideas, attitudes, and
emotions that swirl around a broad issue – the bigger picture
o
Immediate Occasion
– an event or situation that catches the
writer’s attention and triggers a response.
Who
is the
A
udience?
o
The group of readers to whom this piece is directed –
What are the characteristics of this group? How are they
related to you? Why are you addressing them?
What
is the
P
urpose?
o
The reason behind the text – “What do I want my
audience to think or do as a result of reading my
text?” Explain yourself – what you hope to
accomplish by this expression of opinion. How
would you like your audience to respond?
What
is the
S
ubject?
o
Students should be able to state the focus on the
intended task – What are you talking about?
What
is the
T
one?
o
The attitude of the author –How will your attitude
enhance the effectiveness of your piece?
Students must learn to convey tone in their:
Diction
– choice of words
Syntax
– sentence construction
Figurative Language
– imagery,
metaphors, similes, and other
figurative language (involves
rhetorical device)
Denotation: the explicit or direct meaning of
a word
Connotation: the associated or secondary
meaning of a word
Audience
Organization/Structure/Form
Diction
Syntax
Imagery
Figurative
Language
Purpose
Logos
Pathos
Ethos
Exigence (a need
or demand)
Jolliffe’s Rhetorical
Framework Design
Rhetorical
Situation
Appeals
Surface Features
Imagery
– those words, those details that
create vivid images; based within the five
senses
Metaphor
- comparison of two unlike
objects
Simile
– comparison of two unlike objects
using like or as
Alliteration
– repetition of initial consonant
sounds
(consonance = repetition of consonants;
assonance = repetition of vowels)
“While I
n
odded
n
early
n
apping,”
-Edgar Allen Poe, “The Raven”
Allusion
– a reference, explicit or implicit, to
something in previous literature and history
•
“The girl's love of diamonds was her Achilles’ heel.”
http://www.buzzle.com/articles/allusion-examples.html
Anaphora
– the repetition of words, phrases, or
clauses in successive lines, stanzas, or
paragraphs.
“It’s the story of
students who sat where you sit
250 years
ago, and went on to wage a revolution and they founded this
nation. Young people.
Students who sat where you sit
75
years ago who overcame a Depression and won a world war;
who fought for civil rights and put a man on the moon.
Students who sat where you sit
20 years ago who founded
Google and Twitter and Facebook…
-Barack Obama, National Address to America’s
School Children, 2009
Counterargument
– to anticipate objections or
opposing views; a way to appeal to logos
Concede
– in acknowledging a counterargument you agree
(
concede
) that an opposing argument may be true, but then
you…
Refute
– to prove to be false - the validity of all or part of
the argument.
This concession or refutation actually strengthens your
argument; it appeals to logos by demonstrating that you
have considered your subject carefully before making your
argument.
Parallel Structure
–
means using the same pattern
of words to show that two or more ideas have the
same level of importance.
◦
The usual way: to join parallel phrases/clauses with
the use of coordinating conjunctions “and” or “or”
Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling
-The Owl, Purdue University
Rhetorical Question
– a statement constructed as
a question that is not intended to be answered
◦
“Isn’t it a bit unnerving that doctors call what they do
‘practice’?”
George Carlin, yahoo.com
The Imperative
– the command form
of the verb
Listen!
Go!
Wait!
Analogy
–
a kind of extended metaphor or long
simile in which an explicit comparison is made
between two things (events, people, etc.) for the
purpose of furthering a line of reason or drawing
an inference
In other words
– an analogy relates difficult issues
to something familiar
"Remember this, ladies and gentlemen. It's an old phrase, basically
anonymous -- that politicians are a lot like diapers: They should be
changed frequently and for the same reason. Keep that in mind next time
you vote. Good night.
-- delivered by Robin Williams (from the movie
Man of the Year
)
If-then clause
– a device used to emphasize
the potential consequences of certain
actions - usually phrased as a warning or to
express potentially negative consequences
For example:
If you do not clean your room immediately ,
then you will not be going out this
weekend.
Onomatopoeia:
◦
1. the formation of words whose sound is
imitative of the sound of the noise or action
designated, such as
hiss, buzz,
and
bang
◦
2. the use of such words for poetic or rhetorical
effect
◦
* From the Greek: “to make words”
http://dictionary.reference.com
Hyperbole/exaggeration
◦
1. obvious and intentional exaggeration.
◦
2. an extravagant statement or figure of speech
not intended to be taken literally, as “to wait an
eternity.”
http://dictionary.reference.com
Understatement:
◦
the act or an instance of stating something in
restrained terms, or as less than it is
◦
A form of irony in which something is intentionally
represented as less than it is: “Hank Aaron was a
pretty good ball player.”
http://dictionary.reference.com
To show or indicate beforehand; prefigure:
Political upheavals foreshadowed war
.
http://dictionary.reference.com
Chronological: The story’s key events are
presented as they occur
“A flashback is a narrative technique that allows a
writer to present past events during current events,
in order to provide background for the current
narration. By giving material that occurred prior to
the present event, the writer provides the reader
with insight into a character's motivation and or
background to a conflict. This is done by various
methods, narration, dream sequences, and
memories” (Canada).
http://www.courses.vcu.edu/ENG-jeh/BeginningReporting/Writing/storystructure.htm
http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm
1. a position from which someone or
something is observed (the manner
something is considered or evaluated) -
from
the point of view of a doctor.
2. an opinion, attitude, or judgment -
He
refuses to change his point of view in the
matter.
3. the position of the narrator in relation to
the story -
(examples: first person, third
person, limited, omniscient).
First Person:
“…the main character conveys the incidents he
encounters, as well as giving the reader insight into himself as
he reveals his thoughts, feelings, and intentions” (Canada).
Objective Third Person:
“…a ‘nonparticipant’ serves as the
narrator and has no insight into the characters' minds. The
narrator presents the events using the pronouns he, it, they, and
reveals no inner thoughts of the characters” (Canada).
Third Person Omniscient:
“…‘all knowing’ …narrator [who]
‘moves from one character to another as necessary’ to provide
those characters’ respective motivations and emotions” (Canada).
Third Person Limited:
the narrator focuses on only a few
(often only one) characters, sharing thoughts and feelings of that
one or those few characters.
◦
Verbal:
◦
Situational:
◦
Dramatic:
◦
Verbal:
◦
Situational:
◦
Dramatic:
Sarcasm; you say one
thing but mean the
opposite. The irony of
her reply, “How nice!”
when I said I had to work
all weekend.
An outcome of events
contrary to what was, or
might have been,
expected. (the opposite
of what you think is
going to happen).
The reader/audience
knows something that a
character does not know.
An apparent contradiction that is
actually true.
◦
Example: “Less is more.”
A character that serves by contrast to
highlight or emphasize opposing
traits in another character. (Both
characters may share some similar
traits.)
http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/lit_terms_f.html
Inciting Incident:
Rising Action:
Climax:
Falling Action:
Resolution:
Denouement:
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:
http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html
Freytag's Pyramid
1.
Exposition: setting the scene. The writer introduces the
characters and setting, providing description and
background.
2. Inciting Incident: something happens to begin the action. A
single event usually signals the beginning of the main
conflict. The inciting incident is sometimes called 'the
complication'.
3. Rising Action: the story builds and gets more exciting.
4. Climax: the moment of greatest tension in a story. This is
often the most exciting event. It is the event that the rising
action builds up to and that the falling action follows.
http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html
5. Falling Action: events happen as a result of the climax and we
know that the story will soon end.
6. Resolution: the character solves the main problem/conflict or
someone solves it for him or her.
7.
Dénouement:
(a French term, pronounced: day-noo-moh)
the
ending. At this point, any remaining secrets, questions or mysteries
which remain after the resolution are solved by the characters or
explained by the author. Sometimes the author leaves us to think
about the theme or future possibilities for the characters.
You can think of the dénouement as the opposite of the exposition:
instead of getting ready to tell us the story by introducing the setting
and characters, the author ends the story with a final explanation of
what actually happened and how the characters think or feel about the
events. …It is often very closely tied to the resolution.
http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html
Internal: in literature - a struggle which
takes place in the character's mind and
through which the character reaches a
new understanding or dynamic change.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/internal+conflict
External: in literature - a struggle
between a character and some outside
force
◦
Character vs. Character
◦
Character vs. Nature
◦
Character vs. Society
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/external+conflict
A kind of writing that ridicules human
weakness, vice, or folly in order to bring
about social reform.
◦
Examples include most political
cartoons and many sections of
The
Simpsons
.
The imitation of a person, an author, a work,
or type of work typically for comic effect
Fallacies are defects that weaken arguments.
By learning to look for them in your own and
others' writing, you can strengthen your
ability to evaluate the arguments you make,
read, and hear.
Two points to consider about fallacies is that
they are common (in ads, newspapers, etc.),
and that the level of false-reasoning can
range from slight to fully false (an argument
can have a very strong section, as well as a
weak part to it).
Post hoc
(also called false cause)
This fallacy gets its name from the Latin phrase "
post hoc, ergo propter
hoc
," which translates as "after this, therefore because of this."
Definition
: Assuming that because B comes after A, A caused B. Of
course, sometimes one event really does cause another one that comes
later—for example, if I register for a class, and my name later appears
on the roll, it's true that the first event caused the one that came later.
But sometimes two events that seem related in time aren't really related
as cause and event. That is, correlation isn't the same thing as causation.
Examples
: "President Jones raised taxes, and then the rate of violent
crime went up. Jones is responsible for the rise in crime." The increase in
taxes might or might not be one factor in the rising crime rates, but the
argument hasn't shown us that one caused the other.
Tip
: To avoid the
post hoc
fallacy, the arguer would need to give us
some explanation of the process by which the tax increase is supposed
to have produced higher crime rates. And that's what you should do to
avoid committing this fallacy: If you say that A causes B, you should have
something more to say about how A caused B than just that A came first
and B came later.
Ad hominem
Definitions
: The
ad hominem
("against the person") fallacy focusesour attention on people rather than on arguments or evidence. In
this argument, the conclusion is usually "You shouldn't believe So-
and-So's argument." The reason for not believing So-and-So is that
So-and-So is a bad person (
ad hominem
). In an
ad hominem
argument, the arguer attacks his or her opponent instead of the
opponent's argument.
Examples
: "Andrea Dworkin has written several books arguing that
pornography harms women. But Dworkin is an ugly, bitter person,
so you shouldn't listen to her." Dworkin's appearance and character,
which the arguer has characterized so ungenerously, have nothing
to do with the strength of her argument, so using them as evidence
is fallacious.
Tip
: Be sure to stay focused on your opponents' reasoning, rather
than on their personal character. (The exception to this is, of course,
if you are making an argument about someone's character—if your
conclusion is "President Clinton is an untrustworthy person,"
premises about his untrustworthy acts are relevant, not fallacious.)
False dilemma (or, false dichotomy)
Definition
: In false dilemma, the arguer sets up the situation so it looks like
there are only two choices. The arguer then eliminates one of the choices, so
it seems that we are left with only one option: the one the arguer wanted us
to pick in the first place. But often there are really many different options,
not just two—and if we thought about them all, we might not be so quick to
pick the one the arguer recommends.
Example
: "Caldwell Hall is in bad shape. Either we tear it down and put up a
new building, or we continue to risk students' safety. Obviously we shouldn't
risk anyone's safety, so we must tear the building down." The argument
neglects to mention the possibility that we might repair the building or find
some way to protect students from the risks in question—for example, if
only a few rooms are in bad shape, perhaps we shouldn't hold classes in
those rooms.
Tip
: Examine your own arguments: If you're saying that we have to choose
between just two options, is that really so? Or are there other alternatives you
haven't mentioned? If there are other alternatives, don't just ignore them—
explain why they, too, should be ruled out. Although there's no formal name
for it, assuming that there are only three options, four options, etc. when
really there are more is similar to false dilemma, and should also be avoided.
Non Sequitur
("It does not follow").This is the simple fallacy of stating, as a
conclusion, something that does not strictly follow from the premises. For
example, "Racism is wrong. Therefore, we need affirmative action." Obviously,
there is at least one missing step in this argument, because the wrongness of
racism does not imply a need for affirmative action without some additional
support (such as, "Racism is common," "Affirmative action would reduce racism,"
"There are no superior alternatives to affirmative action," etc.).
Other examples:
◦
I deserve
an A
in chemistry because I
studied really hard
.
◦
This car is
the best
because it is
made in Italy
.
This fallacy occurs when the evidence presented
doesn't logically support
its
claim. Studying hard won't necessarily earn you good grades on assignments (or
an A). Both poorly made cars and fabulous cars are manufactured in Italy, so we
can't assume a car is "the best" because it was made there. Non sequiturs cause
arguments to essentially collapse.
Final Example
:
◦
Non Sequitur
: The current healthcare program will be ineffective because
almost all Republican congressmen opposed the legislation for it.
◦
More logical argument
: The current healthcare program will be ineffective
because it does not safeguard against skyrocketing health insurance premiums.
Propaganda
is a specific type of message
presentation, aimed at serving an agenda. Even if the
message conveys true information, it may be partisan
and fail to paint a complete picture. The primary use
of the term is in political contexts and generally
refers to efforts sponsored by governments.
A similar manipulation of information is well known,
such as in advertising, but normally it is not called
propaganda in this context. The word propaganda
carries a strong negative connotation that advertising
does not.
http://www.history.ucsb.edu/projects/ccws/conflicts/P
DF/terrorism/kelly.pdf
Propaganda can serve to rally people behind a cause, but
often at the cost of exaggerating, misrepresenting, or
lying about the issues in order to gain that support.
While the issue of propaganda often is discussed in the
context of militarism, war and warmongering, it is around
us in all aspects of life.
Common tactics include: using selective stories that may
appear to be objective; partial facts; using only a part of a
conversation; using narrow resources of “experts” to
provide insights for a situation (for example: interviewing
retired military to comment upon a current conflict, or
treating government sources as fact, rather than as one
perspective that needs to be verified or researched);
demonizing the enemy;
http://www.history.ucsb.edu/projects/ccws/conflicts/PDF/te
rrorism/kelly.pdf
Explore the concepts of persuasion and manipulation in communication, analyzing examples and their effects on decision-making. Learn how authors persuade readers, evaluate arguments, identify fallacies, discern tone, and understand the Rhetorical Triangle. Discover the role of subject evaluation and audience consideration in effective communication strategies.
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Persuasion Manipulation per suade to prevail on (a person) to do something, as by advising or urging: We could not persuade him to wait. to induce to believe by appealing to reason or understanding; convince: to persuade the judge of the prisoner's innocence per suade ma nip u late to manage or influence skillfully, esp. in an unfair manner: to manipulate people's feelings. to adapt or change (accounts, figures, etc.) to suit one's purpose or advantage. ma nip u late http://dictionary.reference. com
What examples of persuasion do you see? How is one person manipulating the other? How is the persuasion and manipulation affecting choice?
How do authors persuade us of their point of view? How do we evaluate the quality of an argument? How do we spot logical fallacies? How do we discern tone and how does the correct reading of tone change our understanding of the author s purpose?
Its all around us in conversations, in movies, in advertisements and books Aristotle observing in any given case the available means of persuasion. Aristotle: Rhetoric may be defined as the faculty of Rhetoric effectively and usually with a certain goal in mind. Resources include: word choice, any and all figures of speech, and structure of composition. Rhetoric is the art of language of using its resources The Rhetorical Triangle: Subject, Audience, Speaker s Persona
The Rhetorical Triangle The Rhetorical Triangle Speaker Speaker Audience Audience Subject Subject
When considering the subject, the writer/speaker evaluates what he/she already knows and needs to know, investigates perspectives, and determines the kinds of evidence or proofs that seem most useful.
When considering the audience, the writer or speaker speculates about the reader s expectations, knowledge and disposition with regard to the subject.
Speakers/writers use their experiences and observations Use who they are, what they know and feel, and what they ve seen and done to find their attitudes toward a subject and their understanding of a reader. How we, the reader, characterize the speaker based upon their language. Persona or she writes or speaks - voice Persona the character the speaker creates as he voice
There are two other elements of the rhetorical situation - the context in which writing or speaking occurs and the emerging aim or purpose that underlies many of the writer s decisions. Rhetoric is situational it has context occasion or the time and place it was written or spoken. Rhetoric has a purpose or writer wants to achieve. context the purpose a goal that the speaker
Logos Logos Writers appeal to a reader s sense of logos they offer clear, reasonable premises and proofs when they develop ideas with appropriate details these details and proofs help the readers to follow the progression of ideas. logos when clear, reasonable premises and proofs, details; Writers use logos to inform speaker s decisions and readers responses
Ethos Writers use ethos when they demonstrate that they are credible, good knowledgeable Ethos credible, good- -willed, and knowledgeable about their subjects willed, and Writers connect their thinking to reader s own ethical or moral beliefs in that you, the reader, believe and trust this writer to be credible, good- willed, and knowledgeable, and want to continue listening.
Pathos When writers draw on the emotions of readers, and highlight them, they use pathos. Use of personal stories provoke readers sympathetic Figurative language emotional connections subject. Pathos draw on the emotions and interests personal stories or observations to sympathetic reaction. Figurative language is often used to heighten the emotional connections readers make to the
"Fans, for the past two weeks you have been reading about the bad break I got. Yet today I consider myself the luckiest man on the face of this earth. I have been in ballparks for seventeen years and have never received anything but kindness and encouragement from you fans. "Look at these grand men. Which of you wouldn't consider it the highlight of his career just to associate with them for even one day? Sure, I'm lucky. Who wouldn't consider it an honor to have known Jacob Ruppert? Also, the builder of baseball's greatest empire, Ed Barrow? To have spent six years with that wonderful little fellow, Miller Huggins? Then to have spent the next nine years with that outstanding leader, that smart student of psychology, the best manager in baseball today, Joe McCarthy? Sure, I'm lucky. "When the New York Giants, a team you would give your right arm to beat, and vice versa, sends you a gift - that's something. When everybody down to the groundskeepers and those boys in white coats remember you with trophies - that's something. When you have a wonderful mother-in-law who takes sides with you in squabbles with her own daughter - that's something. When you have a father and a mother who work all their lives so you can have an education and build your body - it's a blessing. When you have a wife who has been a tower of strength and shown more courage than you dreamed existed - that's the finest I know. "So I close in saying that I may have had a tough break, but I have an awful lot to live for."
Context & Purpose: Speaker, Audience, Subject: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qswig8dcEAY The Appeals: Logos, Pathos, Ethos:
The goal of an argument is to strengthen or weaken rather than overturn one s convictions/thoughts/beliefs An argument is o a way of establishing and testing out ideas o an activity that helps us form our beliefs and determine our actions o a process of discussion and deliberation rather than a contest of opposites
Rhetoric is the way to connect intentions with responses, the way to reconcile readers and writers. Investigating how readers perceive intentions exposes where and how communication happens or is lost. Intention is sometimes embodied in a thesis statement but intention is carried out throughout a piece and it often changes.
S Speaker O Occasion A Audience P Purpose S Subject T Tone An acronym for a series of questions that students must first ask themselves, and then answer, as they begin to plan their essays
Who The voice that tells the story Who are you? What details will you reveal? Why is it important that the audience know who you are? Who is the Speaker? What o The time and place of the piece: the context that prompted the writing How does your knowledge of the larger occasion and the immediate occasion affect what you are writing about? What is the Occasion? o Larger Occasion emotions that swirl around a broad issue the bigger picture o Immediate Occasion writer s attention and triggers a response. Larger Occasion an environment of ideas, attitudes, and Immediate Occasion an event or situation that catches the Who o Who is the Audience? The group of readers to whom this piece is directed What are the characteristics of this group? How are they related to you? Why are you addressing them?
What oThe reason behind the text What do I want my audience to think or do as a result of reading my text? Explain yourself what you hope to accomplish by this expression of opinion. How would you like your audience to respond? What is the Purpose? What o Students should be able to state the focus on the intended task What are you talking about? What is the Subject? What o The attitude of the author How will your attitude enhance the effectiveness of your piece? What is the Tone?
Students must learn to convey tone in their: Diction Diction choice of words Syntax Syntax sentence construction Figurative Language metaphors, similes, and other figurative language (involves rhetorical device) Figurative Language imagery,
Denotation: the explicit or direct meaning of a word Connotation: the associated or secondary meaning of a word
Exigence (a need or demand) Jolliffe s Rhetorical Framework Design Rhetorical Situation Rhetorical Situation Audience Purpose Logos Appeals Appeals Ethos Pathos Organization/Structure/Form Figurative Language Diction Syntax Imagery Surface Features Surface Features
Imagery create vivid images; based within the five senses Imagery those words, those details that Metaphor objects Metaphor- comparison of two unlike Simile using like or as Simile comparison of two unlike objects
Alliteration sounds (consonance = repetition of consonants; assonance = repetition Alliteration repetition of initial consonant (consonance = repetition of consonants; assonance = repetition of vowels) of vowels) While I nodded nearly napping, -Edgar Allen Poe, The Raven Allusion something in previous literature and history The girl's love of diamonds was her Achilles heel. Allusion a reference, explicit or implicit, to http://www.buzzle.com/articles/allusion-examples.html
Anaphora clauses in successive lines, stanzas, or paragraphs. It s the story of students who sat where you sit 250 years ago, and went on to wage a revolution and they founded this nation. Young people. Students who sat where you sit 75 years ago who overcame a Depression and won a world war; who fought for civil rights and put a man on the moon. Students who sat where you sit 20 years ago who founded Google and Twitter and Facebook Anaphora the repetition of words, phrases, or -Barack Obama, National Address to America s School Children, 2009
Counterargument opposing views; a way to appeal to logos Counterargument to anticipate objections or Concede (concede) that an opposing argument may be true, but then you Refute the argument. Concede in acknowledging a counterargument you agree Refute to prove to be false - the validity of all or part of This concession or refutation actually strengthens your argument; it appeals to logos by demonstrating that you have considered your subject carefully before making your argument.
Parallel Structure means using the same pattern Parallel Structure of words to show that two or more ideas have the same level of importance. The usual way: to join parallel phrases/clauses with the use of coordinating conjunctions and or or Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling -The Owl, Purdue University
Rhetorical Question a question that is not intended to be answered Rhetorical Question a statement constructed as Isn t it a bit unnerving that doctors call what they do practice ? George Carlin, yahoo.com
The Imperative of the verb The Imperative the command form Listen! Listen! Go! Go! Wait! Wait!
Analogy simile in which an explicit comparison is made between two things (events, people, etc.) for the purpose of furthering a line of reason or drawing an inference In other words to something familiar Analogy a kind of extended metaphor or long In other words an analogy relates difficult issues "Remember this, ladies and gentlemen. It's an old phrase, basically anonymous -- that politicians are a lot like diapers: They should be changed frequently and for the same reason. Keep that in mind next time you vote. Good night. -- delivered by Robin Williams (from the movie Man of the Year)
If If- -then clause the potential consequences of certain actions express potentially negative consequences then clause a device used to emphasize the potential consequences of certain actions - - usually phrased as a warning or to express potentially negative consequences a device used to emphasize usually phrased as a warning or to For example: If you do not clean your room immediately , then you will not be going out this weekend. For example: If you do not clean your room immediately , then you will not be going out this weekend.
Onomatopoeia: 1. the formation of words whose sound is imitative of the sound of the noise or action designated, such as hiss, buzz, and bang 2. the use of such words for poetic or rhetorical effect * From the Greek: to make words http://dictionary.reference.com
Hyperbole/exaggeration 1. obvious and intentional exaggeration. 2. an extravagant statement or figure of speech not intended to be taken literally, as to wait an eternity. http://dictionary.reference.com
Understatement: the act or an instance of stating something in restrained terms, or as less than it is A form of irony in which something is intentionally represented as less than it is: Hank Aaron was a pretty good ball player. http://dictionary.reference.com
To show or indicate beforehand; prefigure: Political upheavals foreshadowed war. http://dictionary.reference.com
Chronological: The storys key events are presented as they occur A flashback is a narrative technique that allows a writer to present past events during current events, in order to provide background for the current narration. By giving material that occurred prior to the present event, the writer provides the reader with insight into a character's motivation and or background to a conflict. This is done by various methods, narration, dream sequences, and memories (Canada). http://www.courses.vcu.edu/ENG-jeh/BeginningReporting/Writing/storystructure.htm http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm
1. a position from which someone or something is observed (the manner something is considered or evaluated) - from the point of view of a doctor. 2. an opinion, attitude, or judgment - He refuses to change his point of view in the matter. 3. the position of the narrator in relation to the story - (examples: first person, third person, limited, omniscient).
http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htmhttp://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/pv.html First Person: the main character conveys the incidents he encounters, as well as giving the reader insight into himself as he reveals his thoughts, feelings, and intentions (Canada). Objective Third Person: a nonparticipant serves as the narrator and has no insight into the characters' minds. The narrator presents the events using the pronouns he, it, they, and reveals no inner thoughts of the characters (Canada). Third Person Omniscient: all knowing narrator [who] moves from one character to another as necessary to provide those characters respective motivations and emotions (Canada). Third Person Limited: the narrator focuses on only a few (often only one) characters, sharing thoughts and feelings of that one or those few characters.
Verbal: Situational: Dramatic:
Verbal: Sarcasm; you say one thing but mean the opposite. The irony of her reply, How nice! when I said I had to work all weekend. An outcome of events contrary to what was, or might have been, expected. (the opposite of what you think is going to happen). The reader/audience knows something that a character does not know. Situational: Dramatic:
An apparent contradiction that is actually true. Example: Less is more.
A character that serves by contrast to highlight or emphasize opposing traits in another character. (Both characters may share some similar traits.) A character that serves by contrast to highlight or emphasize opposing traits in another character. (Both characters may share some similar traits.) http://web.cn.edu/kwheeler/lit_terms_f.html
Inciting Incident: Rising Action: Climax: Falling Action: Resolution: Denouement:
Gustav Freytag was a Nineteenth Century German novelist who saw common patterns in the plots of stories and novels and developed a diagram to analyze them. He diagrammed a story's plot using a pyramid like the one shown here: http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html
Freytag's Pyramid Freytag's Pyramid 1. Exposition: setting the scene. The writer introduces the characters and setting, providing description and background. 2. Inciting Incident: something happens to begin the action. A single event usually signals the beginning of the main conflict. The inciting incident is sometimes called 'the complication'. 3. Rising Action: the story builds and gets more exciting. 4. Climax: the moment of greatest tension in a story. This is often the most exciting event. It is the event that the rising action builds up to and that the falling action follows. http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html
5. Falling Action: events happen as a result of the climax and we know that the story will soon end. 6. Resolution: the character solves the main problem/conflict or someone solves it for him or her. 7. D nouement: (a French term, pronounced: day-noo-moh) the ending. At this point, any remaining secrets, questions or mysteries which remain after the resolution are solved by the characters or explained by the author. Sometimes the author leaves us to think about the theme or future possibilities for the characters. You can think of the d nouement as the opposite of the exposition: instead of getting ready to tell us the story by introducing the setting and characters, the author ends the story with a final explanation of what actually happened and how the characters think or feel about the events. It is often very closely tied to the resolution. http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html
Internal: in literature - a struggle which takes place in the character's mind and through which the character reaches a new understanding or dynamic change. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/internal+conflict
External: in literature - a struggle between a character and some outside force Character vs. Character Character vs. Nature Character vs. Society http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/external+conflict
A kind of writing that ridicules human weakness, vice, or folly in order to bring about social reform. Examples include most political cartoons and many sections of The Simpsons.
