Introduction to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)

Critical Discourse Analysis

Critical Discourse Analysis

Presented by: Asal Ismaeel Mehdi

Course Tutor: Prof. Dr. Ahmed Q. Abed

What is CDA? Define CDA.

What is CDA? Define CDA.

•

CDA

CDA

: is simply the study of discourse in its social context, it attempts to combine a social

theory of discourse with theories and methods of discourse analysis.

•

That is, a social theory of discourse means that 

language use

language use

 is a 

social practice

social practice

 that can both

reflect

reflect

 and 

constitute social meanings

constitute social meanings

.

The Beginning of CDA

The Beginning of CDA

•

The beginning of Critical Discourse Analysis:

The beginning of Critical Discourse Analysis:

 - 

 - 

In the 1970s a group of linguists in West Anglea University who developed the approach to

discourse analysis 

discourse analysis 

called 

Critical Linguistics 

Critical Linguistics 

(

CL

CL

) which  was further developed into 

Critical

Critical

Discourse Analysis 

Discourse Analysis 

(

CDA

CDA

) in 1989 and the early 1990s by the intensive productions of a number

of discourse analysts like: Van Dijk, Fairclough, Kress, and Wodak.

Developed to be

Developed to be

Critical Linguistics (CL)

Critical Linguistics (CL)

Critical Discourse

Critical Discourse

Analysis (CDA)

Analysis (CDA)

The Relationship between 

The Relationship between 

CL

CL

 & 

 & 

CDA

CDA

•

According to 

KhosraviNik

, 

CDA

CDA

 has 

benefited

benefited

 from 

CL

CL

 and 

its techniques in analysing

its techniques in analysing

discourses

discourses

•

T

he two terms 

CDA

CDA

 and 

CL

CL

 have been used 

interchangeably

interchangeably

 in many studies.

•

Machin & Mayr justified that by saying that both 

CDA

CDA

 and 

CL

CL

 draw on two principal

thinkers:

The American linguist 

Benjamin Lee Whorf

Benjamin Lee Whorf

                             &

The British linguist 

Michael Halliday

Michael Halliday

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

•

The 

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis 

in its two 

strong

 and 

weak

 versions, that are:

 ‘

linguistic determinism

linguistic determinism

’ and ‘

linguistic relativity

linguistic relativity

’ proposes that:

 “

language determines thinking

language determines thinking

”… and “

the native language influences one’s thought and

the native language influences one’s thought and

perception

perception

”.

•

It is similar to Fowler’s statement: “

differences of linguistic structure cause the speakers of

differences of linguistic structure cause the speakers of

different languages in some sense to “

different languages in some sense to “

see the world

see the world

” in different ways

” in different ways

”.

•

So, the need for 

CL

CL

 and 

Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics 

Halliday’s Systemic Functional Linguistics 

appeared since Halliday’s

functional model of language 

examines the connection 

examines the connection 

between:

Linguistic Structure 

Linguistic Structure 

and 

Social Values.

Social Values.

Ideational, Interpersonal and Textual Functions

Ideational, Interpersonal and Textual Functions

•

Halliday

Halliday

’s main 

premises

 are that 

linguistic forms are systematically affected by the social

circumstances, language communicates 

ideas

, 

processes

 and 

entities

 by serving:

   three major functions:

1.

The ideational function

The ideational function

 of language serves to represent events, processes and participants.

2.

The interpersonal function 

The interpersonal function 

serves to express the speaker’s attitudes towards the events and the

participants represented.

3.

The textual function 

The textual function 

of language serves to present these ideas and events in coherent texts, or in

other words, it is the process of creating a text.

•

It is through the 

interrelation

interrelation

 of these functions that:

ideologies

ideologies

, 

political views 

political views 

and 

relations of power 

relations of power 

are revealed in 

New Discourse

New Discourse

(

ND

ND

) and drawing on Halliday’s functional model of language,

Critical Discourse Analysis 

Critical Discourse Analysis 

studies language as:

                "

a form of social practice determined by social structure

a form of social practice determined by social structure

"

CDA approach

CDA approach

Socially

Socially

Oriented

Oriented

Linguistically

Linguistically

Oriented

Oriented

‘

Socio-cultural’

Socio-cultural’

practices

practices

‘

D

D

iscursive

iscursive

’

’

practices

practices

‘Discursive practices’            ‘Socio-cultural practices’

‘Discursive practices’            ‘Socio-cultural practices’

•

Include action and interaction, social

relations, the material world, material

practices… the rituals, beliefs,

attitudes, values, desires of people and

institutions.

•

Also include "power and discourse,

forms of consciousness, time and

space, objects, instruments, subjects

and their social relations and activities

as well as abstract social structures,

concrete social events.

•

refer to the wider range of socio-cultural,

political, ideological and institutional

processes and structures in historical

contexts.

Socially- Oriented

Socially- Oriented

Linguistically- Oriented

Linguistically- Oriented

•

Non-critical approaches are linguistically-oriented or simply 

descriptive

descriptive

.

•

They merely 

describe

describe

 the discursive events.

•

Critical approaches: describe 

the discursive events 

the discursive events 

and, also 

reflect ideologies and relations of

reflect ideologies and relations of

power through discourse.

power through discourse.

•

To Van Dijk, 

CDA

CDA

 is not a 

mere analysis 

or 

description

 of the formal features of discourse in a

language but, rather, it 

investigates

investigates

“the role of language in social contexts and the relations of

power and hegemony in society

”.

•

And concepts such as ‘

discourse

discourse

’, ‘

ideology

ideology

’ and ‘

power

power

’ are of major interest to CD analysts

Levels of CDA

Levels of CDA

1.

The 

description

description

level is interested in the formal properties of texts.

2.

The 

interpretation

interpretation

level studies the interaction between the text and the discursive practices

through 

"processes of text production, distribution and consumption“

.

3.

The 

explanation

explanation

level is concerned with the relation between discourse and its social context.

Ideologies and relations of power in news discourse are mainly investigated in the

interpretation stage of CDA.

•

Van Dijk said that power relations and ideologies have a pervasive impact or role upon discourse

interpretation and production, for “

they are embedded in the interpretative procedures – the

they are embedded in the interpretative procedures – the

social orders – which underlie the highest level of interpretative decisions on which others are

social orders – which underlie the highest level of interpretative decisions on which others are

dependent

dependent

 –

 –

 ‘what situation am I in?’”

 ‘what situation am I in?’”

.

.

Principles of CDA

Principles of CDA

•

CDA

CDA

 is "

an explicitly political approach to discourse“

•

CD analysts

CD analysts

 like Fairclough & Fairclough, adopt 

Van Dijk

Van Dijk

’s 

interchangeable use of CDA

with political discourse analysis.

•

A 

CD analyst 

CD analyst 

is a discourse analyst with 

"a clear stance, and an established worldview“

•

Van Dijk 

Van Dijk 

contrasts CD analyst with analysts of other approaches as follows:

“

Unlike other discourse analysts, critical discourse analysts (should) take an explicit

Unlike other discourse analysts, critical discourse analysts (should) take an explicit

socio-political stance: they spell out their point of view, perspective, principles and aims,

socio-political stance: they spell out their point of view, perspective, principles and aims,

both within their discipline and within society at large. Although not in each stage of

both within their discipline and within society at large. Although not in each stage of

theory formation and analysis, their work is admittedly and ultimately political”

theory formation and analysis, their work is admittedly and ultimately political”

.

.

•

Machin & Mayr 

Machin & Mayr 

stated that, it is "

this hierarchical power struggle and social inequality that

this hierarchical power struggle and social inequality that

CD analysts set out to unmask

CD analysts set out to unmask

". Such perspective is 

very evident

very evident

in Fairclough’s definition

of 

CDA

CDA

 as follows:

•

So, 

Van Dijk 

Van Dijk 

and many other 

CD analysts

CD analysts

 believe that they should also be "

social and

social and

political scientists, as well as social critics and activists.. and CDA does not see itself as

political scientists, as well as social critics and activists.. and CDA does not see itself as

either dispassionate or as an objective social science, but rather as engaged and

either dispassionate or as an objective social science, but rather as engaged and

committed

committed

".

Principles of CDA

Principles of CDA

•

According to 

Fairclough and Wodak

Fairclough and Wodak

, the critical approach to discourse analysis has a number of

principles

principles

, described by CD analysts, as “

CDA’s main theoretical assumptions in terms of 

CDA’s main theoretical assumptions in terms of 

power

power

,

,

ideology

ideology

discourse

discourse

 and 

 and 

critique

critique

”:

1.

CDA addresses 

social problem

,

2.

Power relations are discursive,

3.

Discourse constitutes 

society

 and 

culture

,

4.

Discourse does 

ideological work

,

5.

Discourse is historical,

6.

The link between 

text

 and 

society

 is 

mediated

,

7.

Discourse analysis is 

interpretive

 and 

explanatory

.

•

The focus on the importance of 

power

power

 and 

power relations

power relations

 is a 

major theme

major theme

 in all approaches

or theories of CDA.

•

This is clear, and it has been emphasized by 

Van Dijk

Van Dijk

 who argues that CDA is concerned

with:  “

focusing on the role of discourse in the (re)production and challenge of 

focusing on the role of discourse in the (re)production and challenge of 

dominance

dominance

”

•

Dominance

Dominance

: “the exercise of social power by elites, institutions or groups”, mirrors the notion

of ‘power over discourse’

•

Blommaert

Blommaert

 consolidates this concept by stating that “

power, and especially institutionally

power, and especially institutionally

reproduced power, is central to CDA

reproduced power, is central to CDA

”.

The term ‘Critical’

The term ‘Critical’

•

T

he term ‘

critical

critical

’ means that people’s social practices are not easily identified in discourse: The

difficulty here lies in people's “

 invisibility of their ideological assumptions, and of the power

relations which underlie the practices – helps sustain these power relations”.

•

The ‘

critical

critical

’ element is what makes 

CDA

CDA

different

different

; especially in being able to 

unmask

unmask

 and

uncover inequality

uncover inequality

.

•

In discussing those approaches being 

inadequate in social dimensions of language use

inadequate in social dimensions of language use

,

•

Van Dijk

Van Dijk

 affirms that 

these approaches have never been critical due to the fact that they have

aimed 

to describe the world without thinking of changing it

to describe the world without thinking of changing it

.

The terms ‘Social power’, ‘Hegemony’ and ‘Dominance’

The terms ‘Social power’, ‘Hegemony’ and ‘Dominance’

•

These terms have been continuously growing. 

Van Dijk

Van Dijk

 has justified this by saying that:

 these

are different to individual power 

, on the one hand, and being in access to resources like 

wealth

,

status

, 

group education

 and 

force

.

•

Blommaert

Blommaert

 said that 

Social power

Social power

is not easy to identify.

•

So, the 

role of CDA

role of CDA

 is to 

uncover

uncover

 these dominant or prejudice discourses.

The term ‘Hegemony’

The term ‘Hegemony’

•

The 

literature

literature

 of 

racism

racism

 and 

discrimination

discrimination

 has been rich with these subtle examples.

•

Hegemony:

Hegemony:

is closely associated with dominant discourse whenever a group is being dominated

is closely associated with dominant discourse whenever a group is being dominated

by the dominating or powerful one, of course out of their free will.

by the dominating or powerful one, of course out of their free will.

•

This idea has been emphasized by both 

CD analysts 

CD analysts 

and 

politicians

politicians

, like 

Chomsky

Chomsky

 who affirmed

that "

one major function of dominant discourse is precisely to manufacture such consensus,

one major function of dominant discourse is precisely to manufacture such consensus,

acceptance and legitimacy of dominance

acceptance and legitimacy of dominance

"

Principles of CDA

Principles of CDA

•

Another principle, 

CDA

CDA

 is always behind confirming 

its multifunctional nature

its multifunctional nature

. In the words of

Van Dijk

Van Dijk

:

“

Indeed, we have already suggested that many forms of dominance appear to be ‘jointly produced’

Indeed, we have already suggested that many forms of dominance appear to be ‘jointly produced’

through intricate forms of social interaction, communication and discourse. We hope that critical

through intricate forms of social interaction, communication and discourse. We hope that critical

discourse analysis will be able to contribute to our understanding of such intricacies

discourse analysis will be able to contribute to our understanding of such intricacies

.”

•

What is inferred is that one of the most basic characteristics of 

social dominance 

social dominance 

and 

power

power

abuse

abuse

 is 

the access or control of mass media, and consequently of public discourse

the access or control of mass media, and consequently of public discourse

.

•

This is inevitably related to 

elite groups

elite groups

, such as 

politicians

politicians

, 

journalists

journalists

 and 

governmental

governmental

officials

officials

•

 Furthermore, 

Chomsky 

Chomsky 

and

 Milani & Johnson

 Milani & Johnson

 go further to confirm  that the actual

manipulation of such  dominance requires particular forms of access to 

news reports

news reports

, 

opinion

opinion

pieces, political debates, television shows

pieces, political debates, television shows

. Figuratively speaking, to use Fairclough and Wodak's

words, "

there is not only power in discourse but also the important element of power over

there is not only power in discourse but also the important element of power over

discourse

discourse

".

Principles of CDA

Principles of CDA

•

Another important guiding principle in CDA is 

its inherently interdisciplinary nature

its inherently interdisciplinary nature

. Fairclough

and Wodak elaborate that 

CDA is by its nature 

interdisciplinary

interdisciplinary

, 

combining discursive

combining discursive

disciplinary perspectives

disciplinary perspectives

 in its own analysis

, and being used to complement more standard forms

of 

social

social

 and 

cultural

cultural

 analysis.

•

CDA

CDA

, to say it differently, tries to make use of a variety of different fields of research; although

Mekenna has mentioned that "

the most obvious contributions come from 

the most obvious contributions come from 

social

social

 theory, 

 theory, 

political

political

theory and 

theory and 

linguistic

linguistic

 theory

 theory

".

•

For example

, the analysis of the topic understudy must  take into account not only the 

linguistic

linguistic

properties

properties

 of the discourse, but also 

social

social

 theory, 

history

history

, 

ideology

ideology

, 

religion

religion

, 

anthropology

anthropology

, etc, as

forms of 

socio-cultural practices

socio-cultural practices

.

•

This has two 

aims

aims

:

(1) it gives a fair justification for the previous long chapter where an agenda and its components

were explained

(2)it also gives a fair justification to make reference for Fairclough’s intertextuality

•

KhosraviNik

KhosraviNik

 mentions that 

CDA research 

CDA research 

is being 

criticized

criticized

 by those who 

find the analysis and

data interpretation inadequate.

“

Analysts were accused of taking a radical approach to data. Their complete rejection of data as a

Analysts were accused of taking a radical approach to data. Their complete rejection of data as a

source of evidence for witnessing events and understanding them only as a source of evidence

source of evidence for witnessing events and understanding them only as a source of evidence

about informants’ orientations was seen as going too far. They were also accused of not always

about informants’ orientations was seen as going too far. They were also accused of not always

providing sufficiently detailed and systematic analyses of the texts that they examined

providing sufficiently detailed and systematic analyses of the texts that they examined

”.

•

Tracing recent publications of 

Wodak

Wodak

 can give 

sufficient answers to these two questions

sufficient answers to these two questions

.

1.

Being 

critical

critical

 means: 

to identify the 

hidden

hidden

 or 

buried

buried

 goals behind texts

; this leads her to

realize the 

importance of ideology representation 

importance of ideology representation 

and 

reproduction

reproduction

 in discourse analysis.

2.

The answer of the second accusation is found in her and other CD analysts to 

adopt layered

adopt layered

models

models

, with particular focus on 

the textual analysis of the context

the textual analysis of the context

.

Different approaches of CDA

Different approaches of CDA

Dialectal- Relational Approach

Dialectal- Relational Approach

D

D

iscourse- Historical Approach

iscourse- Historical Approach

S

S

ocial -Cognitive model Approach

ocial -Cognitive model Approach

By: Van Dijk

By: Van Dijk

By: 

By: 

Wodak

Wodak

By: Fairclough

By: Fairclough

1. 

1. 

Dialectal- Relational Approach

Dialectal- Relational Approach

  by: 

Fairclough

Fairclough

•

This is the most 

influential approach 

influential approach 

within 

CDA

CDA

, related to Fairclough who based his work on

two important influences

two important influences

:

1.

‘Foucaltian’ critical theory and its relevance to the importance of language as a form of social

action.

2.

The second influence comes from Halliday’s systemic-functional model, which provides “

the

the

toolkit for deconstructing the socially constructed (thus linguistically constructed) machinery

toolkit for deconstructing the socially constructed (thus linguistically constructed) machinery

of power

of power

”.

•

Fairclough

Fairclough

 used terms such as ‘

the order of discourse

the order of discourse

’ to outline his discourse theory.

•

The central notion of the ‘

orders of discourse

orders of discourse

’ in Fairclough is that different discourses are

controlled

controlled

 or 

governed

governed

 by different networks:

“

We always experience the society and the various social institutions within which we operate as

We always experience the society and the various social institutions within which we operate as

divided up and demarcated, structured into different spheres of action, different types of situation,

divided up and demarcated, structured into different spheres of action, different types of situation,

each of which has its associated type of practice

each of which has its associated type of practice

”

•

Orders of discourse

Orders of discourse

 are 

different

different

 and 

independent

independent

 but are 

related

related

 in terms of:

(1) The type of discourse 

(1) The type of discourse 

and 

(2) The way they are structured

(2) The way they are structured

.

•

Henderson

Henderson

 states that to 

Fairclough

Fairclough

, ‘

conversation

conversation

’ are of 

various types of discourse 

linked to

various types of social situations

, especially in the 

official

official

 and  “

off-stage

off-stage

” proceedings such as

bargaining between different lawyers

bargaining between different lawyers

.

•

To 

Fairclough

Fairclough

, 

power relations

power relations

 are of 

central concern

central concern

, and especially when the functions of

‘

orders of discourse

orders of discourse

’ are 

constrained by relationships of power

.

•

He has expanded his 

notion of power

notion of power

 to not only restricted 

class relations

class relations

 and 

class struggles

class struggles

,

but also equally applied to:

 "the power struggles between 

 "the power struggles between 

men and women

men and women

, 

, 

ethnic groups

ethnic groups

, 

, 

age groups

age groups

 and other social groups

 and other social groups

that are not specific to particular institutions”

that are not specific to particular institutions”



 In other words, 

Fairclough’s approach 

Fairclough’s approach 

was not as just another method of language study but as

an 

alternative orientation.

alternative orientation.

Fairclough's analytical framework

Fairclough's analytical framework

1.

Focus upon a specific social problem which has a semiotic aspect; go outside the text and

describe the problem and identify its semiotic aspect.

2.

Identify the obstacles to it being tackled, through an analysis of:

a)

 The network of practices it is located within

           b)

 The relationship of semios is to other elements within the particular  practice(s) concerned

c)

 The discourse (the semiosis itself):

-

 structural analysis: the order of discourse

-

 interactional analysis

-

 interdiscursive analysis

-

 linguistic and semiotic analysis

3.   Consider whether the social order (network of practices) in a sense ‘needs’ the problem.

4.

Identify possible ways past the obstacles.

5.

Reflect critically on the analysis.

2. 

2. 

Discourse- Historical Approach

Discourse- Historical Approach

   by

: 

Wodak

Wodak

•

The 

basic claim 

basic claim 

is that 

social power roles

social power roles

 and 

actions

actions

 can be 

deconstructed through linguistic

deconstructed through linguistic

analysis

analysis

.

•

KhosraviNik

KhosraviNik

 states that the 

notion that language

notion that language

 is an 

inherent social practice

inherent social practice

 remains basic in

this approach.

•

 Related to the 

methodology

methodology

, Wodak confirms that her approach is intended to work with:

1.

Different approaches multi-methodically.

2.

Work on the basis of a variety of empirical data.

3.

Work on background information.

•

To 

Abdul Jabbar & Kareem

Abdul Jabbar & Kareem

, this approach “

gives an important place to Habermas's notion of

gives an important place to Habermas's notion of

the public sphere

the public sphere

”.

•

To 

Wodak & Meyer

Wodak & Meyer

, the model of context used in this approach invokes historical knowledge

understood in terms of four layers:

1.

The linguistic co-text level

2.

The intertextual and interdiscursive level

3.

The extralinguistic level, and

4.

The socio-political and historical level.

Comparison

Comparison

D

D

iscourse- Historical Approach

iscourse- Historical Approach

(

(

Wodak

Wodak

)

)

Dialectal- Relational Approach

Dialectal- Relational Approach

(

(

Fairclough

Fairclough

)

)

1.

Fairclough brought up on the

systemic-functional model of

theory.

2.

He often concentrates on rather

limited amounts of research

material.

1.

Wodak turns to the sociolinguistic

and ethnographical traditions for

inspiration in what she calls the

discourse-historical approach.

2.

One of the key notions in her

approach is an emphasis on corpus-

based research.

3. 

3. 

Social -Cognitive model Approach

Social -Cognitive model Approach

by

: 

Van Dijk

Van Dijk

•

Van Dijk 

Van Dijk 

made a framework for analyzing 

ND

ND

, and especially 

newspapers

newspapers

, that have turned to be

the main source of data in CDA.

•

Van Dijk 

Van Dijk 

identifies 

three different perspectives

three different perspectives

; 

text

text

, 

discourse practice 

discourse practice 

and s

ocio-cultural

ocio-cultural

practice

practice

, with particular focus on the 

link between socio-cultural analysis and textual analysis

link between socio-cultural analysis and textual analysis

.

•

Van Dijk

Van Dijk

differentiates

differentiates

 himself from both 

Wodak

Wodak

 and 

Fairclough

Fairclough

 in regarding his approach as a

social cognitive framework 

social cognitive framework 

– 

where cognitive ‘schemata’ frame both discourse production and

comprehension:

“Discourse, communication and (other) forms of action and interaction are monitored by social

“Discourse, communication and (other) forms of action and interaction are monitored by social

cognition. The same is true for our understanding of social events or of social institutions and

cognition. The same is true for our understanding of social events or of social institutions and

power relations. Hence social cognitions mediate between micro- and macro-levels of society,

power relations. Hence social cognitions mediate between micro- and macro-levels of society,

between discourse and action, between the individual and the group”.

between discourse and action, between the individual and the group”.

•

The organization of a text, in this approach, is 

hierarchical

hierarchical

, with an overriding 

thematic topic

thematic topic

(called the 

macro-structure

macro-structure

) at the top. That is, "

a news report has a headline, a lead and

a news report has a headline, a lead and

different ‘events’ throughout the main text, and each element corresponds to the overall theme

different ‘events’ throughout the main text, and each element corresponds to the overall theme

“.

•

unlike 

Fairclough

Fairclough

 and 

Wodak

Wodak

, 

the model of social cognition 

the model of social cognition 

is much powerful to 

unmask the

unmask the

role of dominance

role of dominance

 and 

power in discourse

power in discourse

 because, as stated by 

Van Dijk:

Van Dijk:

 "

the social cognitions explain the production as well as the understanding and influence of

the social cognitions explain the production as well as the understanding and influence of

dominant text and talk

dominant text and talk

"

The Model of Social Cognition

The Model of Social Cognition

   by: 

   by: 

Van Dijk

Van Dijk

•

This model of analysis is of six steps:

1.

The analysis of 

macro-propositions

macro-propositions

.

2.

The analysis of 

local meanings

local meanings

,

3.

The analysis of ‘

subtle’ formal structures

subtle’ formal structures

: here, a number of linguistic markers are analysed.

4.

The analysis of 

global and local discourse forms or formats

global and local discourse forms or formats

.

5.

The analysis of 

specific linguistic realizations, e.g. hyperbole, litotes

specific linguistic realizations, e.g. hyperbole, litotes

.

6.

The analysis of 

context

context

.

Thank You.

Thank You.