Mastering Sentence Structure: From Fragments to Compound Sentences



A sentence fragment is an incomplete

sentence.



A sentence must include at least one

subject and verb and must form a

complete thought. If it does not, then it is

a fragment!



The neighbor’s cat.



Was grumpy.



Because I like to swim.

1.

Interest in building a canal across the

Isthmus of Panama.

2.

The usefulness of such a canal for sea trade.

3.

Now that the United States was a power in

both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific

Ocean.

4.

What is now Panama was a northern

province of Colombia.

5.  When the Colombian legislature refused to

ratify a treaty.

6.  Giving the United States the right to build

and manage a canal.

7.  Panama granted the U.S. a lease in return for

$10 million and a yearly fee of $250,000.

8.  The completion of the canal in 1914 was a

major triumph.

1.

SF

2.

SF

3.

SF

4.

S

5.

SF

6.

SF

7.

S

8.

S



Simple Sentence= 

independent clause



One subject and one verb



Compound Sentence 

= two or more simple

sentences (independent clauses)



You form compound sentences by combining two

independent clauses with a 

coordinating

conjunction 

preceded by a comma.



European 

immigrants

 arrived 

at Ellis Island.



European immigrants arrived at Ellis Island, 

but

Asian immigrants arrived at Angel island.



A comma alone cannot connect two independent

clauses!



And



But



Or



For



Nor



So



Yet



Coordinating conjunctions show the

relationship between two ideas.



It always goes BEFORE the conjunction!



We can stand in line all night, or we can go home now.



But remember, only use a comma if it connects two

COMPLETE INDEPENDENT CLASUES!



Incorrect: We can stand in line all night, or go home now.



Correct: We can stand in line all night or go home now.



You can also join two simple

sentences with a semicolon (;)

The train went by very quickly; I could

barely read where it was from.



When you use a 

transitional word or phrase 

to

join two sentences, a semi-colon always goes 

before

the transitional word or phrase, and a comma

always comes 

after

 it.



Example: Some college students receive grants;

however

, others must take out student loans.



Example: He had a miserable time at the party; 

in

addition

, he lost his wallet.



Also



Besides



Consequently



Eventually



Finally



Furthermore



However



Instead



Later



Meanwhile



Moreover



Nevertheless



Now



Otherwise



Still



Subsequently



Then



Therefore



Thus



After all



As a result



At the same time



For example



For instance



In addition



In comparison



In contrast



In fact



In other words



Of course



On the contrary



Dependent clauses



Subordinating clauses or



Relative pronouns



An 

independent clause

 can stand alone as a

sentence.



However, a 

dependent clause

 cannot stand

alone as a sentence.



When you add the dependent clause to the

independent clause, the result is a 

complex

sentence

.



Because the art exhibit was controversial, 

many

people came to see the paintings

.



The part that is italicized is the independent clause,

the rest is the dependent clause (it can not stand on

it’s own, it is a fragment).

Example: The American diner began as a covered horse-

drawn lunch wagon. IC

1.

When lunch wagons added stools and counters in the

late 1800’s.

2.

Some expanded lunch wagons had fancy woodwork and

glass.

3.

Because of laws that restricted operating hours.

4.

Lunch wagon operators started opening diners.

5. The name diner came from railroad dining cars.

6. Because some diners were converted railroad cars.

7. Diners added bathrooms, booths, and landscaping in the

1920’s.

8. Even though many diners moves from cities to suburbs

after WWII.

9. Diners later competed with fast-food restaurants by adding brick walls and

shingled roofs.

10. Who by the 1980’s made railroad-style diners popular again in the United States

and Europe.

1.

IC

2.

DC

3.

IC

4.

DC

5.

DC

6.

IC

7.

DC

8.

IC

9.

IC

10.

DC



Subordinate

 means to be lower in rank of position;

secondary in importance.



One way to form a complex sentence is to use a

subordinating conjunction-

 a word like although

or because- to join two simple sentences

(independent clauses).



Independent clause contains the more important

idea.



Although Muhammad Ali was stripped of

his heavyweight title for refusing to go

into the army, many people admired his

antiwar position.



Which part is the subordinating clause?



At the beginning of the track-and-field

events, Jesse Owens felt tense because a

German had won a gold medal the day

before and received Hitler’s enthusiastic

congratulations.



Which part is the subordinating clause?



After



Although



As



As if



Because



Before



Even if



Even though



If



If only



In order that



Now that



Once



Provided that



Rather than



Since



So that



Than



Though



Unless



Until



When



Whenever



Where



Whereas



Wherever



Whether



While



After



Before



Since



Until



When



Whenever



While



Sample:



When the whales surfaced

,

Ahab threw his harpoon.



As



Because



Sample:



Scientists scaled back the

project 

because the

government cut funds

.



(Why is there no comma

before the word because?)



In order that



So that



Sample:



So that student’s math

scores will improve

, many

schools have begun

special programs.



Even if



 If



Unless



Sample



The rain forest may

disappear 

unless steps are

taken immediately

.



Although



Even though



Though



Sample



Although Thomas Edison

had almost no formal

education

, he was a

successful inventor.



Where



Wherever



Sample:



Pittsburgh was built 

where

the Allegheny and

Monongahela Rivers meet.



Problem sentences:



Jane want to hear from you.



Janes wants to hear from you.



The Rule:



Usually an –s follows either the subject or the

verb, but not both.



(an exception might be: Charles wants to hear

from you).



A sentence’s subject (a noun or a pronoun) and its

verb must 

agree

: singular subjects take singular

verbs, and plural subjects take plural verbs.



Example: The 

museum

opens

 at ten o’clock.

(singular noun takes a singular verb)



Example: The 

museums 

open

 at ten o’clock.

(plural noun subject takes a plural verb)



The subject of a sentence is not always a single word. It can

also be a 

compound subject

, made up of two or more

words.



Rules: When the parts of a compound subject are

connected by 

and

, the compound subject takes a plural

verb.



Rules: When the parts of a compound subject are

connected by 

or

, the verb agrees with the part of the

subject that is closer to it.



John and Marsha share an office.



The dog and the cat play nicely in the

yard.



The mayor or the council members meet with

community groups.



The council members or the mayor meets with

community groups.



Irregular verbs in the present tense.



They can present problems with subject-verb

agreement.



Memorizing their forms is the ONLY sure way to

avoid such problems. 





Don’t be confused when a group of words comes

between the subject and the verb. They do NOT

affect subject-verb agreement.



You can always cross out the words that come

between the subject and verb to ensure they agree.



High 

levels

 of mercury 

occur

 in some fish.



Water

 in the fuel lines 

causes

 an engine to stall.



Food

 between the teeth 

leads

 to decay.



Collective Nouns 

are words (such as family

and audience) that name a group of people or

things but are singular.



Because they are singular, they always take

singular verbs.



The 

team

practices

 five days a week in the gym.



Army



Association



Band



Class



Club



Committee



Company



Corporation



Family



Gang



Government



Group



Jury



Mob



Team



Union



Indefinite Pronouns- 

anybody, everyone, and

so on- do not refer to a particular person,

place or idea.



Most Indefinite pronouns are singular and

take singular verbs.



No one 

likes

 getting up early.



Everyone 

likes

 to sleep late.



Somebody

likes

 beets.



Another



Anybody



Anyone



Anything



Each



Either



Everybody



Everyone



Everything



Much



Neither



Nobody



No one



Nothing



One



Somebody



Someone



Something



A few indefinite pronouns (both, many, several, few,

others) are plural and take plural verbs.



Many

were

 left homeless by the flood.



A verb always agrees with its subject, even if

the verb comes before the subject.



In questions, for example, word order is

reversed, with the verb coming before the

subject or with the subject coming between

two parts of the verb.



Where 

is

 the 

bank

?



Are

you

going

 to the party?



If you have trouble identifying the subject of a

question, answer the question with a

statement (in the statement, the subject will

come before the verb).



Where 

is

 the 

bank

? The 

bank

is

 on Walnut Street.



Are

you 

going 

to the party?

I

 am going 

to the party.



I love painting.



I hate cutting in the paint.



I love getting new furniture.



I have when I have to put it all together.



Decorating a nursery is fun.



Decorating a nursery is hard work.



WRONG = 

Everyone

 must hand in 

their

 essay draft today.



WRONG = 

Everyone

 must hand in 

his

 essay draft today.



CORRECT = 

Everyone

 must hand in 

his or her 

essay draft

today!



Collective nouns 

are words (like band and team)

that name a group of people or things but are

singular.



Because they are singular, collective noun

antecedents are used with singular pronouns.



The band played on, but it never played our song.



A pronoun should always refer to a specific

antecedent. When a pronoun has no antecedent,

readers will be confused.



WRONG = They said baseball players would strike.



CORRECT = The news report said baseball players

would strike.



When a pronoun comes directly after its antecedent, it is

unnecessary.



WRONG = the librarian, he told me I should check the database.



CORRECT = The librarian told me I should check the database.



Adjectives and adverbs are words that modify (identify or describe)

other words. They help make sentences more specific and more

interesting.



An 

adjective

 answers the question 

what kind? Which one? Or How

many?



Adjectives modify nouns or pronouns. 



The 

Turkish

city

 of Istanbul spans 

two

continents

.



It

 is 

fascinating

 because of its location and history.



Demonstrative Adjectives- 

this, that these and

those- do not describe other words. They simply

identify particular nouns.



This and That identify singular nouns and pronouns.



These and Those identify plural nouns.



An 

adverb

 answers the question 

How? Why? When?

Where? Or To What Extend?



Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.



Traffic 

moves 

steadily

.



Still, we were 

quite

impatient

.



Very

slowly

, we moved into the center lane. (here, very

modifies slowly, BUT, very slowly both modify how we

moved)



Many adverbs are formed when –ly is added to an

adjective form.



Adjective Example: Let me give you one 

quick

 reminder.



Adverb Example: He 

quickly

 changed the subject.



Adjective(adverb)



Slow(ly)



Nice(ly)



Quick(ly)



Real(ly)



Good is an irregular adjective.



Its adverb form is well.



Always use ell when describing a person’s health.



(He really didn’t feel well yesterday. Or I am doing well,

thank you!)



Adjective Example: Fred Astaire was a good dancer.



Adverb Example: He danced especially well with Ginger Rogers.



The 

comparative

 form of an adjective or

adverb compares two people or things.

Adjectives and adverbs for the comparative

with 

–er 

or 

more

.  (duller, more predictable)



The

 superlative 

form of an adjective or adverb

compares more than two things. Adverbs and

adjectives form the superlative with 

-est 

or 

most.

(dullest, most predictable)



The adjective 

unique

 means “the only one”, so it has

no comparative or superlative form. Same policy goes

with 

perfect, impossible, infinite, and dead.



Adjective



The film is 

dull

 and 

predictable

.



Comparative



The film I saw last week was even 

duller

 and 

more predictable 

than

this one.



Superlative



The film I saw last night was the 

dullest

 and 

most predictable 

one I

had ever seen.



Adverb



For a beginner, Jane did needlepoint 

skillfully

.



Comparative



After she had watched the demonstration, Jane did needlepoint

more skillfully 

than Rose.



Superlative



Of the twelve beginners, Jane did needlepoint the 

most skillfully

.



Adjectives with two or more syllables form the comparative

with more and the superlative with most.



Wonderful = more wonderful = most wonderful



(not wonderfuler)



cool, cooler, coolest (not most cool or more cool)



EXCEPTION: Two-syllable adjectives ending in 

–y 

add 

–er

or 

–est 

after changing the 

y

 to an

 i

.



Funny = funnier = funniest



All adverbs ending in 

–ly 

form the comparative with more

and the superlative with most. (more quickly)



Efficiently = more efficiently = most efficiently



Some of the other adverbs form the comparative with 

–er

and the superlative with 

–est

.



Soon = sooner = soonest



NEVER use both 

–er 

and 

more

 to form a comparative or

both 

–est 

and 

most

 to form the superlative.



More awful is ok. More awfuler is not.



Most frightening is ok. Most frighteningest is not.



NEVER use the superlative when you are comparing only

two things.



CORRECT: This is the more serious of the two problems.



You would not say: This is the most serious of the two problems.



NEVER use the comparative when you are comparing more

than two things.



CORRECT: This is the worst  day of my life.



You would not want to say: This is the worse day of my life.



Adjective



I have a 

good

 friend.



I had a 

bad

 friend.



Comparative Form



My friend is 

better

 than yours.



My friend is 

worse

 than yours.



Superlative Form



She is my 

best

 friend in the whole world.



The is the 

worst

 friend ever, in the history of the world.



Adverb



I am feeling 

well

, thank you.



I am feeling 

badly

.



Comparative Form



I am feeling 

better

 today that yesterday.



I am feeling

 worse 

today than yesterday.



Superlative Form



This is the 

best

 I have felt all month.



This is the 

worst

 I have felt all month.



When you use a coordinating conjunction to link

two independent clauses into a single compound

sentence, always put a comma before the

coordinating conjunction.



Correct: We can stand in line all night, or we can go home

now.



Use a comma to offset an introductory phrase from

the rest of a sentence.



In the event of a fire, proceed to the nearest exit.



To keep fit, people should try to exercise regularly.



Also use a comma to set off transitional words or

phrases whether they appear at the beginning,

middle, or end of a sentence. 



In fact, Thoreau spent only one night in jail.



He was, of course, bailed out by a friend.



He did spend more than two years at Walden Pond,

however.



Use commas to set off an appositive, a word or word

group that identifies, renames, or describes a noun

or pronoun.



I have visited only one country, Canada, outside the

United States.



Carlos Santana, leader of the group Santana, played at

Woodstock in 1969.



Clauses add information to a sentence.



Use commas to set off nonrestrictive clauses, clauses that are NOT

ESSENTIAL to a sentence’s meaning.



Telephone calling-card fraud, which cost consumers and phone companies four

billion dollars a year, is increasing.



Do NOT use commas to set of restrictive clauses which contain info

that is essential to a sentence’s meaning.



Many rock stars who recorded hits in the 1950’s made little money from their

songs.  (who recorded hits in the 1950’s supplies specific information that is

essential to the idea of the sentence.



Dates: 

separate the day of the week from the month

and the day of the month from the year.



The first Cinco de Mayo we celebrated in the United

States was Tuesday, May 5, 1998.



Tuesday, May 5, 1998 was the first Cinco de Mayo we

celebrated in the United States,



Addresses: Separate the street address from the city

and the city form the state or country.



The office of the famous fictional detective Sherlock

Holmes was located at 221b Baker Street, London,

England.



The office at 221b Baker Street, London, English,

belonged to the famous fictional detective Sherlock

Holmes.



NOT before the first item in a series



NOT after the last item in a series



NOT between a subject and a verb



NOT before the coordinating conjunction



NOT to set off a restrictive clause



NOT before a dependent clause that follows an

independent clause.



An 

apostrophe

 is a punctuation mark that is used in

two situations: to form a contraction and to form the

possessive of a noun or an indefinite pronoun.



A contraction is a word that uses an apostrophe to

combine two words.



I did not realize how late it was.



I didn’t realize how late it was.



It is not right for cheaters to go unpunished.



It’s not right for cheaters to go unpunished.



I’m



We’re



You’re



It’s



I’ve



I’ll



There’s



Isn’t



Aren’t



Can’t



Don’t



Won’t



Shouldn’t



Let’s



That’s



Who’s



Possessive forms of nouns and pronouns show

ownership.



Noun’s (noun or pronoun and add an apostrophe s).



The dog’s tail itched.



Cesar’s book was ruined by the rain.



The strike’s outcome was uncertain.



Whether it would succeed was anyone’s guess.



(its and his never include apostrophes)



Most plural nouns in in –s. To form the possessive of plural

nouns ending in –s (including names), add just an

apostrophe.



The two drugs’ side effects were quite different.



The Johnsons’ front door is red.



Some irregular noun plurals do not end in –s. If a plural noun does

not end in –s, add an apostrophe s to for the possessive.



The men’s room is right next to the women’s room.



A direct quotation shows the exact words of a

speaker or writer. Direct quotations are always

placed in quotation marks.



A direct quotation is usually identified by an

identifying tag, a phrase that names the person

being quoted.



Lauren said, “My brother and Tina have gotten engaged.”



A famous advertiser wrote, “Don’t sell the steak; sell the

sizzle.”



When a quotation is a complete sentence, it begins with a

capital letter and ends with a period, a question mark, or an

exclamation point.



When a quotations falls at the end of the sentence, the

period is placed inside the quotation marks.



If the quotation is a question or an exclamation, that

punctuation is also inside the quotation mark.



When the identifying tag comes before the quotation, it is

followed by a comma.



 Alexander Dumas wrote, “Nothing succeeds like success.”



When the identifying tag comes at the end of the sentence

it is followed by a period. The comma inside the closing

quotation marks separates the quotation from the

identifying tag.



“Life is like a box of chocolates,” stated Forest Gump.



Identifying tag in the middle of the sentence= follow with a

comma. The first part of the quotation is also followed by a

comma.



“This is my life,” Bette insisted, “and I’ll live it as I please.”



When the identifying tag comes between two quoted

sentences, it is preceded by a comma and followed by a

period.



“Producer Berry Gordy is an important figure in the history of

music,” Tony exclaimed. “He was the creative force behind Motown

records.:



Some titles are typed in italics (or, when

handwriting, underline to show it is a title).



The colon:



Use a colon to introduce  direct quotation.



Use a colon to introduce and explanation, a clarification

or an example.



Use a colon to introduce a list.



The Dash-



Sets off important information



She parked her car – a red Firebird- in a towaway  zone.



Parenthesis ( )



Use to enclose material that is relatively

unimportant.



The weather in Portland (a city in Oregon) was overcast.



In a complex sentence, use a comma after the

dependent clause.



Sample 1: Although she wore the scarlet letter, Hester

carried herself proudly.



Do not use a comma after the independent clause .



Sample 2: Hester carried herself proudly although she

wore the scarlet letter.



Another way to form a complete sentence is to use 

relative

pronouns

 to join two independent clauses.



Relative Pronouns include: that, what, which, who, whoever,

whom, whomever, whose.



Two simple sentences

: Pit bulls were originally, bred in

England. They can be very aggressive.



Complex sentence

: Pit bulls, which were originally bred in

England, can be very aggressive.



Note: the relative pronoun always refers to a word in the

independent clause.



A sentence = at least one independent clause



A r

un-on

 is an error that occurs when two sentences are

joined incorrectly.



There are two kinds of run-ons: fused sentences and

comma splices.



A 

fused sentence

 occurs when two sentences

(independent clauses) are joined without any punctuation.



College costs are rising many students are worried.



A 

comma splice

 occurs when two sentences (independent

clauses) are joined with just a comma.



College costs are rising, many students are worried,

1.

Use a period to create two separate sentences.

2.

Use a coordinating conjunction to connect ideas.

3.

Use a semicolon to connect ideas.

4.

Use a semicolon followed by a transitional word or phrase to

connect ideas.

5.

Use a dependent word to connect ideas.



Tense

 is the form a verb takes to show when an action or

situation takes place.



The 

past tense 

indicates that an action occurred in the

past.



Regular verbs 

form the past tense by adding either –ed

or-d to the 

base form 

of the verb (the present tense form of

the verb that is used with I).



I walk

ed

 over six miles yesterday.



I shopp

ed

 all weekend with my non-pregnant girlfriends from high

school.



I hope

d

 I would get to go to bed early last night, but I didn’t get

home until much later than I expected.



Regular verbs that end in –y form the past tense by

changing the

 y 

to 

I 

and adding 

–ed

.



Cry becomes cried



Try becomes tried



Apply becomes applied



Fly becomes flied



Irregular verbs 

have irregular forms in the past tense.

They are not normal like regular verbs.



In their past tense forms they look very differed from their

present tense forms.



The irregular verb be can cause problems because it has

two different past tense forms- was for singular subjects

and were for second person singular subjects as well as for

plural subjects.



All other English verbs have just one past tense form.



Carlo

was

 interested in fishing yesterday. (singular)



They

were

 going to go without him. (plural)



The helping verbs can/could and will/would present problems

because their past tense forms are sometimes confused with their

present tense forms.



Can, a present tense verb, means “is able to” or “are able

to”.



First year students 

can

 apply for financial aid.



Could, the past tense of can means “was able to” or “were

able to”.



Escape artist Harry Houdini claimed that he 

could

 escape from any

prison.



Will, a present tense verb, talks about the future from a

point in the present.



A solar eclipse 

will

 occur in ten months.



Would, the past tense of will, talks about the future from a

point in the past.



I told him yesterday that I would think about it.



Would is also used to express a possibility or wish.



If we stuck to our budget, we would be better off.



Laurie would like a new stuffed animal.



Note that will is used with can and then would is used with

could.



I 

will

 feed the cats if I 

can

 find their food.



I 

would

 feed the cats if I 

could

 find their food.



Every verb has a past participle form.



The 

past participle 

form of a regular verb is identical to its past

tense form.



Both are formed by adding either 

–ed 

or 

–d 

to the base form of the

verb.



Irregular verbs nearly always have irregular past

participles.



The past participle can be used to form different

verb tenses.



For example, the past participle can be combined

with the present tense forms of 

have

 to form the

present perfect tense

.



Use the present perfect tense to indicate an action that

began in the past and continues into the present!



I have worked as a teacher for seven years. (work began in past

and continues to present)



Or, just the present perfect tense to indicate that an action

has just occurred.



I have just eaten. (the eating has just occurred)



(have or had + past participle)



The 

past participle 

can also be used to form the past

perfect tense, which consists of the past tense of 

have

 plus

the past participle.



Use the past perfect tense to show that an action occurred

before another past action.

past perfect tense



Chief  Sitting Bull 

had fought 

many battles before he 

defeated

General Custer.

Past tense



They 

had seen 

the movie before they 

rented

 it.



had seen

 =  Past Perfect Tense



rented

 = past tense



In addition to functioning as verbs, past participles

can also function as adjectives modifying nouns that

follow them.



I cleaned up the broken glass.



The exhausted mother finally crossed the finish line.



What is our ACTUAL subject and what is our ACTUAL

verb?



Past Participles are also used as adjectives after

linking verbs, such as seemed or looked.



Jason seemed surprised.



He looked shocked.



What is our actual subject? (Jason, He) What is our actual

verb? (seemed,looked)