Language and Culture in Anthropology
The Anthropology of Language: An
Introduction to Linguistic
Anthropology
Chapter 2
Language and Culture
1
Culture
•
In 1952, a couple of fairly famous anthropologists,
Alfred Kroeber (father of Ursula K. Le Guin) and Clyde
Kluckhohn, published a book containing 164
definitions of culture taken from the published work
of anthropologists. Fifty-seven years later, we are still
not all agreed on the topic.
•
One widely used definition (thanks to Max Weber
and Clifford Geertz): Culture is a web of meaning
which human beings weave and in which we are
suspended.
2
The emic vs. etic distinction
•
Two equally valid perspectives from which to
view human behavior, activities, values, etc.
•
Emic—subjectively relevant, internally
verifiable
•
Etic—objectively identifiable, externally
observable
3
Etic and Emic – an example
•
Etic data—things that are observable
–
110
° F water into mug, water swirled in mug, water
poured into the sink, drink poured into mug
•
Emic data
—
the meaning of the action for the
actor
–
He warms his coffee mug so that the coffee tastes
better
»
Or
–
She tries to kill all the germs and bacteria that have
accumulated in the coffee mug since its last washing
4
Ethnosemantics
•
1950s and 60s
•
Frake, Goodenough, Conklin
•
Alternate names:
–
Ethnoscience, Cognitive Anthropology
•
Vocabulary indicates
–
“native” categories
–
Culturally important distinctions
•
Psychological reality or formal account?
5
Cultural emphases –
What IS subjectively relevant?
•
Cultural emphases reflect activities, meet needs
•
Some universal patterns appear to exist,
however
•
Color terms – Stages 1-7 (Ottenheimer p. 31)
•
Color terms and focal points (Berlin & Kay)
–
Codability
—
how easy is it to name a color chip
–
Availability
—
how easy is it to find a given chip in a
group of other chips
6
The Hanun
óo case
•
You cannot ask, in Hanun
óo, “What color is
X?”
•
Hanun
óo are able to distinguish colors
(human biological ability), but color is
subsumed within an overall category of
appearance.
•
Ethnosemantic research was required to
understand how
Hanun
óo speakers
communicate the idea of color.
7
Getting at the Emic –
Doing ethnosemantic research
•
Creating a taxonomy
–
Asking questions about relationships:
•
Is X a kind of Y?
•
What other kinds of Y are there?
•
Are there other kinds of X?
–
Taxonomy about relationships
•
Componential analysis
–
Discovering key differences
8
Sapir-Whorf or Whorfian
hypothesis: two versions
•
Strong Whorf—language determines thought,
you think within the structure of your
language
–
Agar—language as prison
•
Weaker Whorf—language provides habitual
patterns of seeing, thinking and talking
–
Agar—Language as a familiar room; you know
where everything is in it
•
Both forms of linguistic determinism
9
Which comes first? A chicken and egg
problem.
•
Nature of cultural emphasis
–
Feature analysis
–
Prototype theory
•
Color categories and the search for universals
–
Human shared sensory apparatus
–
Impact of language
•
Agreement about differences between languages
•
But, do the differences in language reflect
cultural differences, or create cultural
differences?
10
Linguistic Determinism
•
Origins
–
“Human beings . . . are very much at the mercy of
the particular language which has become the
medium of expression for their society.” (Sapir
1929)
–
“we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the
organization and classification of data” (Whorf
1940)
11
Examples of Linguistic
Determinism: SAE
•
time = matter
•
units of time = objects
•
passage of time = endless line of identical
objects
12
Examples of Linguistic
Determinism: Hopi
•
time = a process
•
units of time = cycles
•
passage of time = endless repetition
of same cycle
13
Testing linguistic determinism
•
Tests generally comparative
•
Variable clearly identified
•
Testing availability and codability
14
Experiments in Linguistic
Determinism
•
Yucatec
–
Grammar stresses material
•
Connects words for wood, tree, table
–
Individuals group cardboard items together
•
English
–
Grammar stresses shape
•
Different words for wood, tree, table
–
Individuals group boxes together
15
Further Evidence for Linguistic
Determinism
•
Relative space vs. absolute space
–
Guugu-Yimidhirr
•
NORTH-SOUTH-EAST-WEST (absolute)
–
Tzeltal
•
UPHILL-DOWNHILL (relative)
16
Experiencing Linguistic Determinism
•
Temporary transfer of control
–
English—lend/borrow
–
Shinzwani—
kopa
•
Telling time
–
English—it is half past nine
–
Czech—it is half of ten
•
Relative vs. absolute space
–
English—deictic system
–
Guugu-Yimidhirr—absolute system
17
Experience and imagination
•
Metaphor—a figure of speech in which a term
or phrase is applied to something to which it is
not literally applicable in order to suggest a
resemblance
•
Metonymy—a figure of speech that consists of
the use of the name of one object or concept
for that of another to which it is related, or of
which it is a part
•
Frame—a system of expectations which
influences experience
18
Metaphors in SAE – a set of examples
•
Anger as Body heat
–
I have a hot temper.
•
Body as container of emotions
–
I am just about up to here!
–
He was filled with grief.
•
Body as container for emotions plus Anger as heat =
–
Heating fluid in a container
•
He was boiling mad.
•
She was fuming.
•
I was steamed.
–
Dealt with by cooling or containing
•
A good workout always helps her cool her temper.
•
I keep my anger bottled up.
–
Potential for explosion, in which things go up
•
I blew my top.
•
She hit the ceiling.
•
He went right through the roof.
19
Metonyms in SAE – some examples
•
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your
ears
.
•
Yesterday, the
White House
announced…
•
Wall Street
reacted badly to the news from
Europe.
•
My
knee
is killing me.
•
If you like
it
then you should-a
put a ring on it
.
20
Frames – structures of expectation
we use to make sense of the world
•
Frames make use of, and make sense of,
metaphors and metonyms
•
Frames trump facts (Lakoff); they make it difficult
to absorb things that don’t fit
•
Examples:
–
The restaurant
–
The classroom
•
Practices, not things
–
Shifting frames—the Cousin Joe example
–
Shifting frames—the club meeting
21
The significance of frames
•
“gay marriage” or “same-sex marriage”
•
“looting” or “finding”
•
“the rich” or “job creators”
•
“quiz” or “assessment”
•
“date” or “hook-up”
22
Coping with differences
•
Using the one you are in is easier than trying to
translate concepts
•
Translation, if it requires completely identical
meanings, is frequently not possible
•
The system you are in will shape your perceptions,
however
•
Human beings construct the systems of meaning
which shape our perceptions
•
You are ALWAYS in a system of meaning, but you are
not trapped in any particular system of meaning
23
Summary
•
Language is a window into culture (Boas)
•
Language is a cultural map (Conklin, Frake…)
•
Language is a guide to social reality (Sapir/Whorf)
–
Linguistic relativity: grammar influences thought
•
A well-accepted idea
–
Linguistic determinism: grammar determines
world view
•
Still controversial
•
Language is a framing device (Lakoff)
–
Helps us to organize and frame our experience of
the world
–
And to express our experience of the world
24
Culture, as defined by various anthropologists, is a complex web of meaning that shapes human behavior and values. The distinction between emic and etic perspectives offers valuable insights into understanding different cultural contexts. Ethnosemantics delves into how vocabulary reflects native categories and psychological realities. Cultural emphases highlight subjective relevance and universal patterns, such as color terms. The intriguing Hanun.o case illustrates the importance of ethnosemantic research in uncovering unique cultural perspectives on color perception.
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Presentation Transcript
The Anthropology of Language: An Introduction to Linguistic Anthropology Chapter 2 Language and Culture 1
Culture In 1952, a couple of fairly famous anthropologists, Alfred Kroeber (father of Ursula K. Le Guin) and Clyde Kluckhohn, published a book containing 164 definitions of culture taken from the published work of anthropologists. Fifty-seven years later, we are still not all agreed on the topic. One widely used definition (thanks to Max Weber and Clifford Geertz): Culture is a web of meaning which human beings weave and in which we are suspended. 2
The emic vs. etic distinction Two equally valid perspectives from which to view human behavior, activities, values, etc. Emic subjectively relevant, internally verifiable Etic objectively identifiable, externally observable 3
Etic and Emic an example Etic data things that are observable 110 F water into mug, water swirled in mug, water poured into the sink, drink poured into mug Emic data the meaning of the action for the actor He warms his coffee mug so that the coffee tastes better Or She tries to kill all the germs and bacteria that have accumulated in the coffee mug since its last washing 4
Ethnosemantics 1950s and 60s Frake, Goodenough, Conklin Alternate names: Ethnoscience, Cognitive Anthropology Vocabulary indicates native categories Culturally important distinctions Psychological reality or formal account? 5
Cultural emphases What IS subjectively relevant? Cultural emphases reflect activities, meet needs Some universal patterns appear to exist, however Color terms Stages 1-7 (Ottenheimer p. 31) Color terms and focal points (Berlin & Kay) Codability how easy is it to name a color chip Availability how easy is it to find a given chip in a group of other chips 6
The Hanuno case You cannot ask, in Hanun o, What color is X? Hanun o are able to distinguish colors (human biological ability), but color is subsumed within an overall category of appearance. Ethnosemantic research was required to understand how Hanun o speakers communicate the idea of color. 7
Getting at the Emic Doing ethnosemantic research Creating a taxonomy Asking questions about relationships: Is X a kind of Y? What other kinds of Y are there? Are there other kinds of X? Taxonomy about relationships Componential analysis Discovering key differences 8
Sapir-Whorf or Whorfian hypothesis: two versions Strong Whorf language determines thought, you think within the structure of your language Agar language as prison Weaker Whorf language provides habitual patterns of seeing, thinking and talking Agar Language as a familiar room; you know where everything is in it Both forms of linguistic determinism 9
Which comes first? A chicken and egg problem. Nature of cultural emphasis Feature analysis Prototype theory Color categories and the search for universals Human shared sensory apparatus Impact of language Agreement about differences between languages But, do the differences in language reflect cultural differences, or create cultural differences? 10
Linguistic Determinism Origins Human beings . . . are very much at the mercy of the particular language which has become the medium of expression for their society. (Sapir 1929) we cannot talk at all except by subscribing to the organization and classification of data (Whorf 1940) 11
Examples of Linguistic Determinism: SAE time = matter units of time = objects passage of time = endless line of identical objects 12
Examples of Linguistic Determinism: Hopi time = a process units of time = cycles passage of time = endless repetition of same cycle 13
Testing linguistic determinism Tests generally comparative Variable clearly identified Testing availability and codability 14
Experiments in Linguistic Determinism Yucatec Grammar stresses material Connects words for wood, tree, table Individuals group cardboard items together English Grammar stresses shape Different words for wood, tree, table Individuals group boxes together 15
Further Evidence for Linguistic Determinism Relative space vs. absolute space Guugu-Yimidhirr NORTH-SOUTH-EAST-WEST (absolute) Tzeltal UPHILL-DOWNHILL (relative) 16
Experiencing Linguistic Determinism Temporary transfer of control English lend/borrow Shinzwani kopa Telling time English it is half past nine Czech it is half of ten Relative vs. absolute space English deictic system Guugu-Yimidhirr absolute system 17
Experience and imagination Metaphor a figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is not literally applicable in order to suggest a resemblance Metonymy a figure of speech that consists of the use of the name of one object or concept for that of another to which it is related, or of which it is a part Frame a system of expectations which influences experience 18
Metaphors in SAE a set of examples Anger as Body heat I have a hot temper. Body as container of emotions I am just about up to here! He was filled with grief. Body as container for emotions plus Anger as heat = Heating fluid in a container He was boiling mad. She was fuming. I was steamed. Dealt with by cooling or containing A good workout always helps her cool her temper. I keep my anger bottled up. Potential for explosion, in which things go up I blew my top. She hit the ceiling. He went right through the roof. 19
Metonyms in SAE some examples Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears. Yesterday, the White House announced Wall Street reacted badly to the news from Europe. My knee is killing me. If you like it then you should-a put a ring on it. 20
Frames structures of expectation we use to make sense of the world Frames make use of, and make sense of, metaphors and metonyms Frames trump facts (Lakoff); they make it difficult to absorb things that don t fit Examples: The restaurant The classroom Practices, not things Shifting frames the Cousin Joe example Shifting frames the club meeting 21
The significance of frames gay marriage or same-sex marriage looting or finding the rich or job creators quiz or assessment date or hook-up 22
Coping with differences Using the one you are in is easier than trying to translate concepts Translation, if it requires completely identical meanings, is frequently not possible The system you are in will shape your perceptions, however Human beings construct the systems of meaning which shape our perceptions You are ALWAYS in a system of meaning, but you are not trapped in any particular system of meaning 23
Summary Language is a window into culture (Boas) Language is a cultural map (Conklin, Frake ) Language is a guide to social reality (Sapir/Whorf) Linguistic relativity: grammar influences thought A well-accepted idea Linguistic determinism: grammar determines world view Still controversial Language is a framing device (Lakoff) Helps us to organize and frame our experience of the world And to express our experience of the world 24
