Examination of Witnesses under Indian Evidence Act, 1872
INTRODUCTION
Chapter
X of part
III
of
the
Indian
Evidence Act,
1872
deals with the
examination
of a
witness.
Section
135
lays
down the
order to
be
followed
in
production and examination
of
witnesses which
is
left
to
be
regulated
by
the
code
of
civil procedure
and
criminal procedure.
If
there
is no
provision
for a
particular
point
in case, then, the court can exercise
its
own discretion
in
deciding
the order of
production
of
witnesses.
ADMISSIBILITY OF EVIDENCE
As
per
Section-5
of
the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, only those pieces
of
evidence, regarding
the
facts and facts
in
issue have
to
be
submitted that
are relevant.
Section
136
has
reiterated
this
point. It states that
a
judge
may
ask
the
party, who has proposed
to
give evidence,
as
to
how
will such
a
fact,
for
which the evidence has been provided,
be
relevant
to
the case.
Hence,
the
judge can question
the
relevancy
of
the fact
for
which
the
evidence
is being
provided and the evidence shall only
be
submitted
if
the
judge
thinks the fact will
be
relevant to the
suit.
If
the
fact
(A)
proposed
to
be
proved,
whose
evidence
will
be
admissible
on proof of
some other fact (B),
the
latter
(B)
should
be
proven first.
The
court, may, however, exercise its discretion
and
let
the
party prove the
former (A) first,
on the
condition that the
party
will prove the latter
fact
(B)
at
a
later stage.
Where relevancy
of
an alleged fact
is
dependent
on
another alleged fact,
the
latter shall
be proven
first
but
again,
the
judge may exercise
his
discretion and let the
party
prove the first fact.
It
has been held
in
Collector
of
Gorakhpur
v
Palakdhari Singh
(1889
ILR
12
All
1)
that
any doubt
about the admissibility
of a
piece
of
evidence shall
be
in
favour
of
admissibility.
EXAMINATION
ORDER
Testimonies
of
witnesses are recorded
as
answers
to
the questions asked
to
them.
These
questions
are
relevant
to
the
facts
in
issue,
and
such
questioning
is
called
an
examination
of
the witness. The evidence
not
only
includes answers
to
questions
but
may also include statements
made
or
that
is
required
to
be
made,
by
the court
and is
relevant
to
the
issue.
Section
137
It
states that
a
witness should
be
first examined
by
the
party
who has
called
him
and
this is
called examination-in-chief. And when
an
adverse
party examines the witness, it
is
called cross-examination. The cross-
examination may explore all the relevant facts
and
not necessarily, the
facts that were asked
to the
witness during the examination
in
chief. There
might
be no
need
for a
cross-examination
if
the testimony
is
prima facie
unacceptable
(Ghulam Rasool Khan
v
Wali Khan, AIR
1978 J&K 54).
If
the
party
who called the witness, questions him, again after cross-
examination, it
is
called
re-examination.
Section
138
It provides for
the
order of
examination;
a
witness will
be
first examined
in
chief, and then
if
the adverse party deems fit, cross-examined
and if
the
party calling him so desires,
be
re-examined.
A
witness has
to be
first
examined
in
chief to
be
cross-examined, else,
it is
not permissible and
not
possible
(Sharadamma
v
Renchamma, AIR
2007
Kant. 17).
An
order of
re-examination can
be
made
by
the court
on an
application
by
the
party as
it is
not limited
to
courts’ own motion
(SSS Durai Pandian
v
SA
Samuthira Pandian, AIR
1998
Mad.
323).
The
matter
of
re-examination
should
be
limited to examination
in
chief
and
cross-examination
and if
any
new
matter
is
introduced
by
permission
of the
court, the witness
can be
subjected
to
cross-examination, again,
upon
that
matter.
Section
139
says that
a
person called
upon to
produce
a
document
does
not
become
a
witness
per
se. Hence,
he
cannot
be
cross-examined, unless,
examined
in
chief
by
the party who called
him.
Section
140
provides that witness to
a
party’s character maybe
cross-
examined
if
already examined
in
chief.
The
evidence
of
character
is
meant
to
assist the court
in
estimating the value
of
the evidence
brought
before
the
court through the mouth
of
the
witness.
LEADING QUESTIONS
Section
141
“Any question suggesting the answer which the person putting
it
wishes
or
expects to receive
is
called
a
leading question.”
A
witness should tell the story relating
to
the relevant facts
or
facts
in
issue
in his
own words.
If
there
is an
inbuilt answer
in
the question,
or
if it
is
suggestive
of an
answer,
a
lawyer could construct
a
story
out
of
the mouth
of
the witness which suits
his
client.
If
such
a
question
is
asked
in the
examination in chief
or in
re-examination, the adverse party
may
object
to
it. This has been provided
in
Section
142
and
it also states
an
exception
that such leading question may
be
asked
on
permission
from
the court, i.e.,
the
objection
is
overruled.
Section
143
states that leading questions
may
be
asked in cross-
examination.
IN
WRITING
Section
144
“Any witness may
be
asked, whilst under examination, whether any
contract, grant
or other
disposition
of
property,
as
to which
he is
giving
evidence, was
not
contained in
a
document,
and
if
he
says that it was,
or if
he is
about
to
make any statement
as to
the contents
of
any document,
which,
in
the opinion
of
the Court,
ought
to
be
produced, the adverse party
may
object
to
such evidence being given until such document
is
produced,
or
until facts have
been proved
which entitle the party who called
the
witness
to
give secondary evidence
of
it.” Accompanied
by the
illustration,
the
section
is
self-explanatory:
The
question
is
whether
A
assaulted B.
C
deposes that
he heard A
say
to
D,
“B
wrote
a
letter accusing me
of
theft,
and I
will
be
revenged
on
him.”
This
statement
is
relevant,
as
showing A’s motive for the assault, and
evidence may
be
given
of
it,
though no
other evidence
is given
about the
letter.
Section
145
It
provides that
a
witness may
be
cross-examined
as
to
previous
statements
made
by
him
in
writing
and if
he
is to
be
cross-examined over oral
statements, which were reduced to writing,
his
notice shall
be
brought to
such parts
of
writing before
the
writing
is to
be
proved.
A
witness
can only
be
contradicted
over
previous statements made
by
him,
not
subsequent
(Mishri Lal
v
State
of
MP,
2005 10
SCC
701).
LAWFUL
QUESTIONS
Except
for
the questions already permitted through different sections
of
the
act, the following questions can also
be put up
in cross-examination,
under
Section
146
:
To
test
a
witness’ veracity
or
truthfulness
To know
who
he is
and what
his
position
is
in
life
To
shake
his
credit
by
injuring his
character
These questions can
be
asked even
if,
directly
or
indirectly, the witness
is
criminated
or is
exposed
to
penalty
or
forfeiture. The witness may also
be
compelled to answer these questions
as per
the conditions
of
the following
sections. By section
28 of the
Criminal Law amendment, 2013, if
a
case
relating
to
sections
376 to 376E
or
for an
attempt to commit any such
offence
(under the
Indian Penal Code,
1860),
the victim’s moral character
or
previous sexual experience cannot
be
questioned
in
cross
examination.
COMPELLED
TO
ANSWER
Section
132
provides
for
compelling
of a
witness to
give
answers to
the
question that
are
relevant to the matter in issue. This cannot
be
excused
on
the
ground that such answer would give rise to witness’ liability, criminal
or
civil.
If
the witness
is
forced
to
give
an
answer, the same shall not
be
used
as
evidence against him
in any
case, provided, the evidence so
provided was not false.
Section
147
provides that if any such lawful
question
is
relevant to the suit
or
proceeding, the provisions
of
section
132
will
apply.
Section
148
provides protection against aggressive cross-examination.
If a
person’s character
is in
question, to shake
his
credit, the court may, while
exercising its discretion, warn the witness that
he is
not obliged
to
answer.
Provided the court considers the questions that were asked were irrelevant
to
prove
his
credibility
or
far
too
remote
in
time
or
those
which
would
not
affect
at
all
or
slightly affect the witness’ credibility
as to the
matter to
which
he is
giving
evidence.
REASONABLE
GROUND
Section
149
provides that
if
there
is no
reasonable
ground
to convey an
imputation
under
section 148, the questions are
not
to
be
asked. This
section also safeguards
a
witness against damaging
of
character.
Illustration
(c)
to
this
section makes
it
clear:
A
witness,
of
whom nothing
whatever
is
known,
is
asked
at
random whether
he
is a
dacoit. There are
here
no
reasonable
grounds for
the
question.
Section
150
lays
duty of a
counsel
in
questioning
a
witness’ character. If
a
barrister, pleader, vakil
or
attorney questions
a
witness’ character without
a
reasonable
ground,
the same shall
be
reported
to
the High Court
or any
authority
to
which
he
is
subject.
QUESTIONS
FORBIDDEN
Section
151
confers the
court
with the power
to forbid
questions that are
indecent and scandalous. These questions might
be
related
to
the matter
in
hand
and
may
only
be
allowed if
they
relate to
the
fact
in
issue
or
are
necessary in determining whether some fact
in
issue
existed.
Section
152
empowers the
court to forbid
questions that are meant
to
insult
or
to annoy.
Even
if the question might
be
proper, the
court
can
reject it if it
is
needlessly
offensive.
SECTION
153
It
provides
for
protection
of a
witness’ character. If
a
witness has answered
a
question
as
to his credit,
no
evidence shall
be
admissible
to
contradict his
answer. This section has two exceptions, first,
if he
lies
about his
former
conviction
and
second, to impeach
his
impartiality; evidence may
be
provided
to
contradict both these claims. Though
no
evidence
is
admissible
to contradict
a
witness’ claim
as
to
his
credit,
if
the witness
has
lied,
he
can
be
separately charged for producing false
evidence.
SECTION
154
It
allows
for the
party, who has called
upon a
witness, to
put up
any
questions
to
the witness
as
could
be
asked
to
him
during
cross-
examination.
This
section brings under
its
purview, the concept
of
a
hostile witness.
It
has been defined
by
the Supreme Court in
Sat Paul
v
Delhi Administration (AIR
1976
SC
303),
as
one who
is not
desirous
of
telling the truth at
the
instance
of the
party calling him. The previous
testimony
of a
hostile witness
is not
washed off, the court can use
it as
evidence and if the prosecution
does not
confront the witness, regarding
the
contradiction,
it
shall
be
the duty
of the
court to
do
so
for
ascertaining
truth
(State
of
Rajasthan
v
Bhera,
1997
Cr LJ
1237).
SECTION
155
The
credit
of a
witness can
be
impeached in the following ways. It
is
usually impeached
by
the adverse
party
but
if
the witness becomes hostile,
his
credit can
be
impeached
by
the party who called
him:
By producing witnesses who testify
from
their personal
knowledge
of
the witness that such person
is
unworthy
of
credit. The produced
witnesses must have personal knowledge
of
the witness
they
are
testifying
against.
By showing that the witness was bribed
or has
taken an
offer
to
receive
a
bribe
or
has some
other
corrupt
inducement.
By citing earlier statements
of
the witness which contradicts
him,
only to
the extent which section
153
permits.
CORROBORATION OF
EVIDENCE
Section
156
provides that
a
witness may
be
questioned about
circumstances, apart
from
the main event, with the intention to corroborate
evidence provided
by
him and the court shall permit
it
if it deems that
these questions will help corroborate
his
testimony
in
reference
to the
relevant facts.
Section
157
states that
a
former statement
of a
witness can
be
used
to
corroborate testimony
of the
witness in relation
to a
common subject
matter.
In
Rameshwar
v
State
of
Rajasthan
(1952
SCR 377),
the
Supreme Court allowed
the
statement
of a young
girl who was raped,
to
be
corroborated with the girl’s own statement
to her
mother
four hours
after
the
incident.
Section
158
says
that
statements
relevant
under
section
32
or
33
(like,
a
dying
declaration), that have been proved, all matters which confirm
or
contradict the statement,
can
be
proved. Evidence can also
be
given
to
impeach
the
credit
of
the person who made such statement,
to
the extent
as
if
that person
had
appeared
as a
witness.
REFRESHING
MEMORY
A
witness
is
allowed
to
refer
to a
writing made
by him
either
at the
time
of
happening
of an
event concerning which
he is
questioned
or
sometime
later, which the court considers
it
likely that
the
event was fresh in his
memory. The witness can also refer
to
someone else’s writing about the
event which was made within
a
time period which court considers
reasonable
on
the
ground
stated above.
If
the witness
is an
expert,
he
may
consult professional books. These provisions
have
been provided
under
Section
159.
Section
160
A
witness may testify to facts mentioned in such document
as
is
mentioned
under
section 159.
It
does not matter whether the witness has
any
specific recollection
of
the facts recorded,
as long
as
he is
sure that
he
correctly recorded
them.
Section
161
gives
a
right to the adverse party to cross examine the
witness
and
also
to
produce
to
him
any
such writing,
as given
under section
159 &
160.
PRODUCTION OF
DOCUMENTS
When
a
witness
has
been called
upon to
produce
a
document,
he is bound
to produce
it. Any objection
to it
shall
be
dealt with
by the
court and
to
determine its admissibility, the court shall inspect it, except when it refers
to
matters
of
state
(Section
162).
Section
163
requires
the
party (A), who has given notice
to
the other
party
(B) to
provide certain documents,
to
produce such documents after initial
inspection
in the
court,
as
evidence
if the
party
(B)
asks
so.
Section
164:
If,
under the
previous
section, party
B
denies to provide
A
with
the
required
documents,
the
same
cannot
be
produced
in
court
by
B
without A’s permission.
SECTION
165
This
section provides
for
the power
of
court
to
question.
A
judge can,
in
order
to obtain
proof of
relevant facts, ask any question
he
pleases,
be
it
relevant
or
irrelevant
to the
case.
It may be
asked
any
time
and may
take
any form and be
directed
at a
witness
or a
party. The judge
can
though, not
compel
the
witness
to
answer and the judgement should
be
based
upon the
facts which have been declared relevant
under
the
IEA.
CONCLUSION
While safeguarding
the
social life
of a
witness, the act serves justice to the
fullest extent. By omitting and adding certain provisions, the act
is
indeed
keeping
up
with
the
modern times.
Chapter X of Part III of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, outlines the process of examining witnesses, including the order of production and admissibility of evidence. Sections 135 to 141 delve into the rules governing the examination-in-chief, cross-examination, and re-examination of witnesses, emphasizing the relevance of evidence and the sequence in which facts should be proven. The use of leading questions, the order of examination, and the role of character witnesses are also discussed.
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Presentation Transcript
INTRODUCTION Chapter X of part III of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872 deals with the examination of a witness. Section 135 lays down the order to be followed in production and examination of witnesses which is left to be regulated by the code of civil procedure and criminal procedure. If there is no provision for a particular point in case, then, the court can exercise its own discretion in deciding the order of production of witnesses. ADMISSIBILITY OF EVIDENCE As per Section-5 of the Indian Evidence Act, 1872, only those pieces of evidence, regarding the facts and facts in issue have to be submitted that are relevant. Section 136 has reiterated this point. It states that a judge may ask the party, who has proposed to give evidence, as to how will such a fact, for which the evidence has been provided, be relevant to the case. Hence, the judge can question the relevancy of the fact for which the evidence is being provided and the evidence shall only be submitted if the judge thinks the fact will be relevant to the suit. If the fact (A) proposed to be proved, whose evidence will be admissible on proof of some other fact (B), the latter (B) should be proven first. The court, may, however, exercise its discretion and let the party prove the former (A) first, on the condition that the party will prove the latter fact (B) at a later stage. Where relevancy of an alleged fact is dependent on another alleged fact, the latter shall be proven first but again, the judge may exercise his discretion and let the party prove the first fact. It has been held Collector of Gorakhpur v Palakdhari Singh (1889 ILR 12 All 1) that any doubt about the admissibility of a piece of evidence shall be in favour of admissibility. in EXAMINATION ORDER Testimonies of witnesses are recorded as answers to the questions asked to them. These questions are relevant to the facts in issue, and such
questioning is called an examination of the witness. The evidence not only includes answers to questions but may also include statements made or that is required to be made, by the court and is relevant to the issue. Section 137 It states that a witness should be first examined by the party who has called him and this is called examination-in-chief. And when an adverse party examines the witness, it is called cross-examination. The cross- examination may explore all the relevant facts and not necessarily, the facts that were asked to the witness during the examination in chief. There might be no need for a cross-examination if the testimony is prima facie unacceptable (Ghulam Rasool Khan v Wali Khan, AIR 1978 J&K 54). If the party who called the witness, questions him, again after cross- examination, it is called re-examination. Section 138 It provides for the order of examination; a witness will be first examined in chief, and then if the adverse party deems fit, cross-examined and if the party calling him so desires, be re-examined. A witness has to be first examined in chief to be cross-examined, else, it is not permissible and not possible (Sharadamma v Renchamma, AIR 2007 Kant. 17). An order of re-examination can be made by the court on an application by the party as it is not limited to courts own motion (SSS Durai Pandian v SA Samuthira Pandian, AIR 1998 Mad. 323). The matter of re-examination should be limited to examination in chief and cross-examination and if any new matter is introduced by permission of the court, the witness can be subjected to cross-examination, again, upon that matter. Section 139 says that a person called upon to produce a document does not become a witness per se. Hence, he cannot be cross-examined, unless, examined in chief by the party who called him. Section 140 provides that witness to a party s character maybe cross- examined if already examined in chief. The evidence of character is meant to assist the court in estimating the value of the evidence brought before the court through the mouth of the witness. LEADING QUESTIONS
Section 141 Any question suggesting the answer which the person putting it wishes or expects to receive is called a leading question. A witness should tell the story relating to the relevant facts or facts in issue in his own words. If there is an inbuilt answer in the question, or if it is suggestive of an answer, a lawyer could construct a story out of the mouth of the witness which suits his client. If such a question is asked in the examination in chief or in re-examination, the adverse party may object to it. This has been provided in Section 142 and it also states an exception that such leading question may be asked on permission from the court, i.e., the objection is overruled. Section 143 states that leading questions may be asked in cross- examination. IN WRITING Section 144 Any witness may be asked, whilst under examination, whether any contract, grant or other disposition of property, as to which he is giving evidence, was not contained in a document, and if he says that it was, or if he is about to make any statement as to the contents of any document, which, in the opinion of the Court, ought to be produced, the adverse party may object to such evidence being given until such document is produced, or until facts have been proved which entitle the party who called the witness to give secondary evidence of it. Accompanied by the illustration, the section is self-explanatory: The question is whether Aassaulted B. C deposes that he heard Asay to D, B wrote a letter accusing me of theft, and I will be revenged on him. This statement is relevant, as showing A s motive for the assault, and evidence may be given of it, though no other evidence is given about the letter. Section 145
It provides that a witness may be cross-examined as to previous statements made by him in writing and if he is to be cross-examined over oral statements, which were reduced to writing, his notice shall be brought to such parts of writing before the writing is to be proved. A witness can only be contradicted over previous statements made by him, not subsequent (Mishri Lal v State of MP, 2005 10 SCC 701). LAWFULQUESTIONS Except for the questions already permitted through different sections of the act, the following questions can also be put up in cross-examination, under Section 146: To test a witness veracity or truthfulness To know who he is and what his position is in life To shake his credit by injuring his character These questions can be asked even if, directly or indirectly, the witness is criminated or is exposed to penalty or forfeiture. The witness may also be compelled to answer these questions as per the conditions of the following sections. By section 28 of the Criminal Law amendment, 2013, if a case relating to sections 376 to 376E or for an attempt to commit any such offence (under the Indian Penal Code, 1860), the victim s moral character or previous sexual experience cannot be questioned in cross examination. COMPELLED TOANSWER Section 132 provides for compelling of a witness to give answers to the question that are relevant to the matter in issue. This cannot be excused on the ground that such answer would give rise to witness liability, criminal or civil. If the witness is forced to give an answer, the same shall not be used as evidence against him in any case, provided, the evidence so provided was not false. Section 147 provides that if any such lawful question is relevant to the suit or proceeding, the provisions of section 132 will apply. Section 148 provides protection against aggressive cross-examination. If a person s character is in question, to shake his credit, the court may, while exercising its discretion, warn the witness that he is not obliged to answer. Provided the court considers the questions that were asked were irrelevant to prove his credibility or far too remote in time or those which would not
affect at all or slightly affect the witness credibility as to the matter to which he is giving evidence. REASONABLE GROUND Section 149 provides that if there is no reasonable ground to convey an imputation under section 148, the questions are not to be asked. This section also safeguards a witness against damaging of character. Illustration (c) to this section makes it clear: A witness, of whom nothing whatever is known, is asked at random whether he is a dacoit. There are here no reasonable grounds for the question. Section 150 lays duty of a counsel in questioning a witness character. If a barrister, pleader, vakil or attorney questions a witness character without a reasonable ground, the same shall be reported to the High Court or any authority to which he is subject. QUESTIONS FORBIDDEN Section 151 confers the court with the power to forbid questions that are indecent and scandalous. These questions might be related to the matter in hand and may only be allowed if they relate to the fact in issue or are necessary in determining whether some fact in issue existed. Section 152 empowers the court to forbid questions that are meant to insult or to annoy. Even if the question might be proper, the court can reject it if it is needlessly offensive. SECTION 153 It provides for protection of a witness character. If a witness has answered a question as to his credit, no evidence shall be admissible to contradict his answer. This section has two exceptions, first, if he lies about his former conviction and second, to impeach his impartiality; evidence may be provided to contradict both these claims. Though no evidence is admissible to contradict a witness claim as to his credit, if the witness has lied, he can be separately charged for producing false evidence. SECTION 154
It allows for the party, who has called upon a witness, to put up any questions to the witness as could be asked to him during cross- examination. This section brings under its purview, the concept of a hostile witness. It has been defined by the Supreme Court in Sat Paul v Delhi Administration (AIR 1976 SC 303), as one who is not desirous of telling the truth at the instance of the party calling him. The previous testimony of a hostile witness is not washed off, the court can use it as evidence and if the prosecution does not confront the witness, regarding the contradiction, it shall be the duty of the court to do so for ascertaining truth (State of Rajasthan v Bhera, 1997 Cr LJ 1237). SECTION 155 The credit of a witness can be impeached in the following ways. It is usually impeached by the adverse party but if the witness becomes hostile, his credit can be impeached by the party who called him: By producing witnesses who testify from their personal knowledge of the witness that such person is unworthy of credit. The produced witnesses must have personal knowledge of the witness they are testifying against. By showing that the witness was bribed or has taken an offer to receive a bribe or has some other corrupt inducement. By citing earlier statements of the witness which contradicts him, only to the extent which section 153 permits. CORROBORATION OF EVIDENCE Section 156 provides that a witness circumstances, apart from the main event, with the intention to corroborate evidence provided by him and the court shall permit it if it deems that these questions will help corroborate his testimony in reference to the relevant facts. Section 157 states that a former statement of a witness can be used to corroborate testimony of the witness in relation to a common subject matter. In Rameshwar v State of Rajasthan (1952 SCR 377), the Supreme Court allowed the statement of a young girl who was raped, to be may be questioned about
corroborated with the girls own statement to her mother four hours after the incident. Section 158 says that statements relevant under section 32 or 33 (like, a dying declaration), that have been proved, all matters which confirm or contradict the statement, can be proved. Evidence can also be given to impeach the credit of the person who made such statement, to the extent as if that person had appeared as a witness. REFRESHING MEMORY A witness is allowed to refer to a writing made by him either at the time of happening of an event concerning which he is questioned or sometime later, which the court considers it likely that the event was fresh in his memory. The witness can also refer to someone else s writing about the event which was made within a time period which court considers reasonable on the ground stated above. If the witness is an expert, he may consult professional books. These provisions have been provided under Section 159. Section 160 Awitness may testify to facts mentioned in such document as is mentioned under section 159. It does not matter whether the witness has any specific recollection of the facts recorded, as long as he is sure that he correctly recorded them. Section 161 gives a right to the adverse party to cross examine the witness and also to produce to him any such writing, as given under section 159 & 160. PRODUCTION OF DOCUMENTS When a witness has been called upon to produce a document, he is bound to produce it. Any objection to it shall be dealt with by the court and to determine its admissibility, the court shall inspect it, except when it refers to matters of state (Section 162). Section 163 requires the party (A), who has given notice to the other party (B) to provide certain documents, to produce such documents after initial inspection in the court, as evidence if the party (B) asks so. Section 164: If, under the previous section, party B denies to provide A with the required documents, the same cannot be produced in court by B withoutA s permission.
SECTION 165 This section provides for the power of court to question. A judge can, in order to obtain proof of relevant facts, ask any question he pleases, be it relevant or irrelevant to the case. It may be asked any time and may take any form and be directed at a witness or a party. The judge can though, not compel the witness to answer and the judgement should be based upon the facts which have been declared relevant under the IEA. CONCLUSION While safeguarding the social life of a witness, the act serves justice to the fullest extent. By omitting and adding certain provisions, the act is indeed keeping up with the modern times.
