Language Teaching Techniques: GTM, Direct Method & Audio-Lingual Method

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Techniques & Principles in
Language Teaching
Diane Larsen-Freeman
Marti Anderson
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The Grammar-Translation
Method (GTM)
Principles of GTM
GTM or Classical Method
Used in late 19
th
 century
Theoryless
Fundamental purpose of learning a lg. : to read literature of that lg. and intellectual development
An important goal: to translate
Communication is 
not
 a goal
Primary skills: reading & writing
Teacher is the authority
Students to learn about grammar of the lg.
Attention to similarities bet. NL & TL: Cognates
Grammar taught deductively
Memorization                 Lg. learning = mental exercise
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The Direct Method (DM)
Principles of The Direct Method
 
 
DM, as a reaction to GTM
Weak theoretical foundations
Basic rule: NO TRANSLATION IS ALLAOWED (no native lg.)
Meaning conveyed 
directly 
thru demonstration & visual aids (realia or pictures)
Lg. is primarily speech
Vocabulary acquired naturally in sentences rather than memorized as a list
Purpose of lg. learning: communication (lg. to be used in real context thru speaking)
Pronunciation is important
Grammar taught inductively
Syllabus is based on situations and topics, not on linguistic structures
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Principles of Audio-Lingual Method
Like DM is an oral-based approach.
Drills
 students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns.
Has a strong theoretical base in linguistics & psychology
(structuralism/behaviorism)
Sentence patterns are acquired thru 
conditioning; 
i.e. helping students
respond correctly to stimuli thru positive reinforcement                     learners
overcome habits of NL and form new habits required for speaking TL
Lg. forms occur most naturally within a context.
NL & TL have separate linguistic systems. They should be kept apart to
avoid interference.
Teacher’s role: an accurate model (orchestra leader); students should mimic
the model.
Lg. learning is a process of 
habit formation
; the stronger the habit, the
greater the learning
It is impo.to prevent learners from making errors. Errors lead to formation
of bad habits. Errors should be corrected immediately.
Purpose of lg.: to learn how to use lg. to communicate
Students should “
overlearn
”: learn to answer automatically without
stopping to think.
Major objective of lg. teaching: for students to acquire the structural
patterns
Learning of another lg. should be the same as the acquisition of the NL
(inductive learning).
Major challenge of teaching: getting students to overcome the habits of
their NL
Speaking is more basic to lg. than the written form (natural order).
Lg. cannot be separated from culture.
One problem with ALM: students’ inability to transfer classroom habits to
communication use outside it.
 
The idea of lg. learning as habit formation was challenged by Chomsky
(speakers have a knowledge of underlying abstract rules, which allow them
to understand and create novel utterances)
 
Lg. is rule formation rather than habit formation.
 
Lg. acquisition must be a procedure whereby people use their own thinking
processes, or cognition, to discover the rules of the lg. they are acquiring.
Emphasis on human cognition led to the establishment of the 
Cognitive
Code Approach.
 
Learners are responsible for their own learning (learner autonomy).
 
Errors are inevitable and are signs that learners were actively testing their
hypotheses to discover rules of TL.
 
No lg. teaching method ever really developed directly from Cognitive Code
Approach
 
Instead, a number of “
innovative methods
” emerged.
Innovative Methods
1.
The Silent Way
2.
Desuggestopedia
3.
Community Language Learning
4.
Total Physical Response
The Silent Way
Basic principle: teaching should be subordinated to learning.
 
Learning is a process we initiate by ourselves by mobilizing our inner
resources ( our perception, awareness, cognition, imagination, intuition,
creativity).
 
Teachers should start from sth the students already know (e.g. sounds)
Teacher should give only what help is necessary.
 
Students are responsible for their own learning; they develop their own
“inner criteria” for correctness.
 
Silence 
is a tool to help foster autonomy; teacher speaks only when
necessary.
 
Meaning is made clear by focusing students’ perceptions, not thru
translation.
Teacher’s silence encourages group cooperation.
 
Teacher avoids praises or criticizes to make students more self-reliant.
 
Self-correction of errors
 
A great deal of meaningful practice without repetition
 
Lg. is for self-expression
 
The syllabus is composed of linguistic structures which are constantly being
recycled, not arranged in a linear fashion.
Desuggestopedia
The reason for our inefficiency is 
psychological barriers 
to learning.
We only use 5-10% of our mental capacity
To make better use of our reserve capacity, our limitations need to be
desuggested.
One way to stimulate mental reserves: the integration of 
fine arts
Principles
Learning is facilitated in a cheerful environment.
Peripheral learning
: a student can learn from what is present in the
environment, even if his attention is not directed to it.
The teacher should ‘desuggest’ psychological barriers.
The teacher should integrate indirect positive suggestions into the learning
situations
.    e.g. : there is no limit to what you can do
The teacher should present and explain the grammar and vocabulary but
not dwell on them.
Fine art provides positive suggestions for students.
One way that meaning is made clear is thru native language translation.
Communication takes place on ‘two planes’:
1.
conscious plane:
 
learners attend to the lg. (linguistic message is encoded).
2.
subconscious plane:
 
the music suggests that learning is easy and pleasant.
Teacher should avoid repetition in class activities as much as possible.
Novelty aids acquisition.
It is desirable that students achieve a state of infantilization so that they will
be more open to learning.
Errors are corrected gently, not in a direct, confrontational manner.
Community Language Learning (CLL)
Whole-person learning: 
teachers consider not only their students’ intellect,
but they also have some understanding of
                             - the relationship among students’ feelings,
                             - physical reaction,
                             - instinctive protective reactions,
                             - desire to learn
CLL takes its principles from Counseling Learning approach developed by
Charles A. Curran
Curran found that adults often feel threatened by a new learning situation.
One way to deal with students’ fear: teachers to become language
counselors; 
i.e. someone who is a skillful 
‘understander’ 
of the struggle
students face.
Principles
Building a relationship with and among students is very important.
Language is for communication.
Teacher does not stand in front the class to
                                       - reduce the threat & facilitate learning
                                       - to foster interaction among students, rather than only
                                          from student to teacher
Sharing learners’ feelings about their learning experience allows them to get
to know one another and to build 
community
.
Teacher creates an accepting atmosphere guided by the knowledge that
each learner is unique.
Teacher ‘
counsels
’ students; i.e. he doesn’t offer advice, but rather shows
them that he is really listening to them and understands what they are
saying.
Native lg. is used to make meaning clear; students feel secure when they
understand everything.
Non-defensive learning:          SAARRD
 
S
ecurity     
A
ttention     
A
ggression   
R
eflection      
R
etention     
D
iscrimination
Cooperation, not competition is encouraged.
Developing a community builds trust & reduces the threat of the new
learning situation.
Retention
 will best take place somewhere in between novelty & familiarity
(not too new, not too familiar).
Reflection
 on     - language      &
                                     - what was experienced in community learning
 
In the beginning stages, the ‘syllabus’ is generated primarily by the
students. Students are more willing to learn when they have created the
material themselves.
 
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Total Physical Response
Chapter 8
Introduction
Comprehension Approach: a general app. to  FL instruction which gives
importance to listening comprehension.
Language learning starts first with understanding & ends with production.
This is exactly how infants acquire its native language.
Methods fitting within the Comprehension Approach:
1.
Natural approach (Krashen & Terrel)
               - emphasis on basic 
communication
 skills (like DM)
               - 
comprehensible input (i + 1)
: meaningful exposure to TL
               - 
meaning
 is given priority over form (voc. acquisision is stressed)
               - 
acquisition
 is favored over 
learning
              - 
low 
affective filter
2.
Self-instructional program (Winitz & Reeds) & The Learnables (Winitz)
               - listening to tape-recorded words, phrases, & sentences while looking
                 at 
pictures
3.
Lexical Approach (Lewis)
               - less concerned with production and more concerned with
                  comprehension
               - centrality of 
lexicon
 & 
multiword lexical items 
(chunks), not grammar,
                  functions, etc.
4.
Total Physical Response (Asher)
5.
      - the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding is to follow the 
directions
Principles
Meaning can often be conveyed thru actions.
 
Beginning lg. instruction should address the right hemisphere of the brain
which controls nonverbal behavior.
 
The TL should be presented in chunks, not just word by word.
Understanding should be developed before speaking.
 
The imperative is a powerful linguistic device thru which the teacher can
direct student behavior.
 
Feeling of success & low anxiety facilitate learning.
Correction should be done in an unobtrusive manner (not easily noticed).
 
Novelty is motivating (teacher gives students commands they’ve not heard
before).
 
Lg. learning is more effective when it is fun.
Spoken lg. is emphasized over written lg.
 
Students will begin to speak when they are ready.
 
Errors are expected & should be tolerated (working on the fine details of the
lg. should be postponed until students have become proficient).
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Communicative Language
Teaching
Chapter 9
Introduction
Shift from linguistic structure-centered approach to a 
Communicative
Approach
 in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
Language is fundamentally social.
Being able to communicate requires more than mastering linguistic
structure (
linguistic competence
).
Communication requires 
communicative competence 
– knowing when and
how saying what to whom (Hymes, 1971_.
Communicative Competence
Language Socialization
 
in SLA:
                        - of paramount importance in LA
                        - it "stands to contribute the most to an understanding of the
                          cognitive, cultural, social, and political complexity of language
                          learning"
 
Social constructivist
 perspectives:
                        - central focus
                        - language as interactive communication among individuals, each
                          with a sociocultural identity
DEFINLNG COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
(CC)
Coined by Dell Hymes (1972,1967), a sociolinguist
 
Hymes believed that Chomsky's (1965) notion of competence was too
limited.
 
Chomsky's "rule-governed creativity" did not account sufficiently for the
social and functional rules of language.
Hymes referred to CC 
as
 
             “that aspect of 
our 
competence that enables 
us 
to convey
and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally
within specific contexts.”
 
Savignon noted that
             "communicative competence is relative, not absolute, and
depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved."
 
It is not so much an intrapersonal construct as we saw in
Chomsky's early writings but rather a 
dynamic
, 
interpersonal
construct
linguistic
 
competence 
vs. 
communicative
 
competence
 
knowledge "about" language forms
 
knowledge that enables a person to communicate functionally and interactively
James Cummins (1980, 1979) introduced 
CALP
 vs. 
BICS
 
CALP :
 cognitive/academic language proficiency (linguistic)
 
BICS: 
basic interpersonal communicative skills (communicative)
 
CALP is that dimension of proficiency in which the learner manipulates or
reflects upon the surface features of language outside of the immediate
interpersonal context. It is what learners often use in classroom exercises
and tests that focus on form.
 
BICS is the communicative capacity that all children acquire in order to be
able to function in daily interpersonal exchanges.
Cummins later (1981) modified his notion of CALP and BICS (dimension of context
is added):
 
Context-reduced
 communication
      vs.      
Context-embedded
 communication
                  CALP                                                               BICS
Classroom & school language                           face-to-face communication
 
Swain's and later in Canale's (1983) definition, four different components, or
subcategories, made up the construct of CC. The first two subcategories
reflected the use of the linguistic system itself; the last two defined the
functional aspects of communication
 
1.
Grammatical competence
2.
Discourse competence
3.
Sociolinguistic competence
4.
Strategic competence
Strategic Competence: occupies a special place
 
Compensatory strategies
Swain (1984, p, 189) amended the earlier notion of strategic competence to
include "communication strategies that may be called into action either to
enhance the effectiveness of communication or to compensate for
breakdowns."
 
Yule and Tarone (1990, p. 181) referred to strategic competence as "an
ability to select an effective means of performing a communicative act that
enables the listener/reader to identify the intended referent.
 
In fact, strategic competence is the way we manipulate language in order to
meet communicative goals
Bachman’s (1990) model of CC
Here, strategic competence almost serves an "executive" function of making the final "decision,"
among many possible options, on wording, phrasing, and other productive and receptive means
for negotiating meaning.
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
Functions 
are essentially the purposes that we accomplish with language, e.g.,
stating, requesting, responding, greeting, parting, etc.
 
Functions cannot be accomplished, of course, without the forms of language:
morphemes, words, grammar rules, discourse rules, and other organizational
competencies.
 
While forms are the outward manifestation of language, functions are the
realization of those forms.
Communication is not merely an event, something that happens; it is
functional, purposive, and designed to bring about some effect—some
change, however subtle or unobservable—on the environment of hearers
and speakers.
 
 Communication is a series of communicative acts or 
speech acts
, to use
John Austin's (1962) term, which are used systematically to accomplish
particular purposes.
 
Austin stressed the importance of consequences, the perlocutionary force,
of linguistic communication.
Principles
Authentic lg. – lg as it is used in a real context – should be introduced.
 
Understanding the speaker’s or writer’s 
intentions
 is part of being
communicatively competent.
 
TL is a vehicle for classroom communication, not just the object of study.
One function can have many different linguistic forms.
 
Students should learn about 
cohesion
 and 
coherence
.
 
Games are important because they have certain features in common with
real communicative events – there is a 
purpose
 for the exchange.
 
Students should be given an opportunity to express their ideas and opinions.
 
Errors are tolerated and seen as a natural outcome of the development of
communication skills.
 
Teacher’s responsibility is to establish situations likely to promote communication.
The social context of the communicative event is essential in giving meaning to the
utterances.
 
Learning to use lg forms 
appropriately
 is an important part of communicative
competence.
 
Teacher acts as 
facilitator
 in setting up communicative activities and as an 
advisor
during the activities.
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Content-based Instruction
(CBI)
Chapter 10
Two versions of Communicative Approach:
1.
Weak version: 
learning to use
’ English (practice English for
communicative purposes; e.g. learning the forms for a particular function)
 
2.
Strong version: 
using English to learn
’ English (Language is acquired thru
communication)
Teaching methods belonging to the 
strong version
:
 
1.
Content-based Instruction
2.
Task-based approach
3.
Participatory approach
 
They give priority to communicating, over predetermined linguistic content (
Teaching
through
 
communication
 rather than 
for
 it/ learn to communicate by communicating).
Rationale for Content-based Instruction
Specialized language courses treat content relevant to a particular profession or academic
discipline:
 
Language for specific purposes
Language for academic purposes
Literacy for adult immigrants: 
read & write content relating to what they need in
     their work environment
Competency-based programs: 
learn lg skills by studying vital ‘life-coping’ or ‘survival’ skills
Examples of CBI:
Language across the curriculum
’ movement for native English speakers in England: integrates
the teaching of reading and writing into all other subject areas.
 
Second language immersion programs 
in Canada: Anglophone children learn their academic
subjects in French
 
Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) 
in European context
: 
language becomes the
medium for learning content (neither lg learning nor subject learning, but rather an amalgam of
both)
Principles
Both the content and the language are the target for learning
 
Teaching should build on students’ previous experience.
 
Language use is a means to an end, rather than an end in itself (lg is a
medium to convey the content of interest).
It is important to integrate all the skills, as well as vocabulary and grammar in an
authentic context.
 
Learners work with meaningful, cognitively demanding language and content
within the context of authentic material and tasks.
 
It is important for students to learn the discourse organization of academic texts
 
undefined
Task-based Language
Teaching
Chapter 11
Two types of syllabi:
1.
Synthetic: 
comprise linguistic units (grammar structures, vocabularies,
functions, etc.) ordered in a sequence from linguistic simplicity to linguistic
complexity (synthesize units for the purpose of communication)
1.
Analytic: 
organized in terms of purposes for which people are learning lg.
and the kinds of lg. performance necessary to meet those purposes.
Task-based syllabus:
An analytic syllabus
 
Tasks  are meaningful, and in doing them, students need to communicate.
 
Tasks have a clear outcome so that teacher and students know whether or not the
communication has been successful.
Difference between task-based syllabi and task-based language teaching
(TBLT):
Task-based syllabi has been criticized for the absence of grammatical items,
but TBLT (
task-supported teaching
) does not exclude it.
 
For example, structure-based communicative tasks are designed to have
students automatize the use of a structure they have already internalized.
 
                             e.g. making inferences about someone’s identity by using
                                      certain modal verbs or adverbs of probability
 
Techniques for raising learners’ consciousness with regard to linguistic items:
 
Input enhancement: 
such as using boldface type for a particular structure in a reading passage
 
Input flooding: 
using particular vocabulary items or grammar structures with great frequency in
the input
 
Focus on form: 
teacher’s reformulating or recasting a student’s error or providing a 
brief
grammar explanation, not a return to grammar drills and exercises.
Theoretical support for TBLT:
 
Constructivism, 
founded by John Dewy (1913)
 
                            learners are not receptacles of the teacher’s knowledge, but
                            are actively involved in constructing their own knowledge thru
                            experience and problem solving
Principles
Pp. 154-55
Principles
Class activities have a perceived purpose and a clear outcome.
 
A pre-task is a helpful way to have students see the logic involved in what they are
being asked to do
 
The demand on thinking made by the activity should be just above the level which
learners can meet without help                     the teacher breaks down into smaller
steps the logical thinking process
Teacher-class negotiation ensures that as many students as possible in a
mixed-ability class grasp the nature of the activity.
 
The teacher doesn’t consciously simplify his lg., rather uses natural
strategies that proficient speakers use when interacting with less proficient
speakers inside & outside of the classroom.
undefined
The Political Dimensions of
Language Teaching and the
Participatory Approach
The Politics of Language
Learning a language is a political act:
 
1. Positive view:
English is seen to be the language of power.
The availability of English as a global lg. is accelerating globalization, and the
globalization is accelerating the use of English.
 
2. Negative view:
What
 
is lost when an individual learns English or ‘adds’ an English-speaking
identity.
Educational inequality: not everyone has the opportunity to study English.
Loss of endangered languages
Whose English Should be Taught?
1.
Inner circle: native speaker Eng. As spoken in UK, USA, Anglophone
Canada, Australia, …
 
2.
Outer circle: World Englishes: India, Nigeria, Singapore, …
 
3.
Expanding circle: English as a Lingua Franca (ELF); English as an additional
lg. whose norms are controlled by native speakers
Who ‘owns’ the English lg.?
 
1.
Belongs to those for whom it is a 
mother tongue
2.
English is needed for a sense of 
community
,
                                     but         it’s a threat to multilingualism
 
Solution: 
the norms of Eng. As a Lingua Franca are determined by its users.
Critical Discourse Analysis
The study of how identity and power relations are constructed in lg.
 
How lg is linked to social practice and the implicit message that is sometimes
conveyed
 
                   e.g.: “Jubilant Blacks Clashed with Police.”
                                                             V.S.
                              “Police Clashed with Jubilant Blacks”
Critical Approaches to Pedagogy
Goal: 
to create a more egalitarian society by raising awareness of social
injustice as a necessary part of the curriculum
 
Ideas for being more “critical”:
                       - literacies
                       - plurilingualism & multicompetence
                       - non-native speakers as teachers
                       - hidden curriculum
Literacies
Participation in a literate Eng. Culture means 
more than being able to read
Eng.
 
The need to gain access to the specific Eng. Lg norms, grammar, and
vocabulary used by 
those in power
Plurilingualism & multicompetence
To keep one lg from complete domination, teachers can foster positive attitudes towards
all lg.s.
 
All lg learning should be 
additive 
not subtractive.
 
Teachers need to respect their students’ identities as plurilinguals.
 
The goal of teaching should be successful lg use and multicompetence, not trying to get
students to imitate monolingual native-speaker use.
Non-native speakers as teachers
Many lg education programs prefer to hire native speakers for teaching.
 
Non-native speakers 
are 
models of successful learning
Hidden curriculum
What is being taught and learned that is not explicit.
 
                      e.g.     What do teachers indicate when they set the desks in a circle?
The participatory approach
: one response to
the politics of lg teaching
Originated in the late 1950s with the work of Paulo Freire
Widely discussed in the lg teaching literature in 1980s
Is based on a growing awareness of the 
role
 that education and 
lg education
have 
in creating and perpetuating power 
dynamics in society
Similar to content-based instruction: begins with content that is meaningful
Difference: the content coms from issues of concern to students
Central premise: 
education
 has value only insofar as they help people
liberate
 themselves from the social conditions that oppress them and
improve students’ lives.
 
Goal: 
to help students understand the social, historical, or cultural forces
that shaped a particular context, and then to help 
empower students 
to 
take
action
 and 
make decisions 
in order to 
gain control 
over their lives in that
context.
Freire (1970) 
criticized
 what he called the 
banking method 
of teaching in
which the teacher ‘deposits’ information in the students, making the
assumption that the teacher knows what the students need to learn
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Explore the Grammar-Translation Method, Direct Method, and Audio-Lingual Method in language teaching. Understand principles, objectives, and methodologies with insights into language learning approaches. Enhance teaching skills and foster effective communication in language education.


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  1. Techniques & Principles in Language Teaching Diane Larsen-Freeman Marti Anderson

  2. The Grammar-Translation Method (GTM)

  3. Schools of Thought Structuralism/ Behaviorism Generativism/ cognitivism Constructivism Grammar- Translation Method Audio-Lingual Method Silent Way Communicative Language Teaching Desuggestopedia Methods Direct Method Community Language Learning Content-based Instruction Total Physical Response Task-based Language Teaching

  4. Principles of GTM GTM or Classical Method Used in late 19thcentury Theoryless Fundamental purpose of learning a lg. : to read literature of that lg. and intellectual development An important goal: to translate Communication is not a goal Primary skills: reading & writing Teacher is the authority Students to learn about grammar of the lg. Attention to similarities bet. NL & TL: Cognates Grammar taught deductively Memorization Lg. learning = mental exercise

  5. The Direct Method (DM)

  6. Principles of The Direct Method DM, as a reaction to GTM Weak theoretical foundations Basic rule: NO TRANSLATION IS ALLAOWED (no native lg.) Meaning conveyed directly thru demonstration & visual aids (realiaor pictures) Lg. is primarily speech Vocabulary acquired naturally in sentences rather than memorized as a list Purpose of lg. learning: communication (lg. to be used in real context thru speaking) Pronunciation is important Grammar taught inductively Syllabus is based on situations and topics, not on linguistic structures

  7. Principles of Audio-Lingual Method Like DM is an oral-based approach. Drills students in the use of grammatical sentence patterns. Has a strong theoretical base in linguistics & psychology (structuralism/behaviorism) Sentence patterns are acquired thru conditioning; i.e. helping students respond correctly to stimuli thru positive reinforcement learners overcome habits of NL and form new habits required for speaking TL

  8. Lg. forms occur most naturally within a context. NL & TL have separate linguistic systems. They should be kept apart to avoid interference. Teacher s role: an accurate model (orchestra leader); students should mimic the model. Lg. learning is a process of habit formation; the stronger the habit, the greater the learning

  9. It is impo.to prevent learners from making errors. Errors lead to formation of bad habits. Errors should be corrected immediately. Purpose of lg.: to learn how to use lg. to communicate Students should overlearn : learn to answer automatically without stopping to think. Major objective of lg. teaching: for students to acquire the structural patterns

  10. Learning of another lg. should be the same as the acquisition of the NL (inductive learning). Major challenge of teaching: getting students to overcome the habits of their NL Speaking is more basic to lg. than the written form (natural order). Lg. cannot be separated from culture.

  11. One problem with ALM: students inability to transfer classroom habits to communication use outside it. The idea of lg. learning as habit formation was challenged by Chomsky (speakers have a knowledge of underlying abstract rules, which allow them to understand and create novel utterances) Lg. is rule formation rather than habit formation. Lg. acquisition must be a procedure whereby people use their own thinking processes, or cognition, to discover the rules of the lg. they are acquiring.

  12. Emphasis on human cognition led to the establishment of the Cognitive Code Approach. Learners are responsible for their own learning (learner autonomy). Errors are inevitable and are signs that learners were actively testing their hypotheses to discover rules of TL. No lg. teaching method ever really developed directly from Cognitive Code Approach Instead, a number of innovative methods emerged.

  13. Innovative Methods 1. The Silent Way 2. Desuggestopedia 3. Community Language Learning 4. Total Physical Response

  14. The Silent Way Basic principle: teaching should be subordinated to learning. Learning is a process we initiate by ourselves by mobilizing our inner resources ( our perception, awareness, cognition, imagination, intuition, creativity). Teachers should start from sth the students already know (e.g. sounds)

  15. Teacher should give only what help is necessary. Students are responsible for their own learning; they develop their own inner criteria for correctness. Silence is a tool to help foster autonomy; teacher speaks only when necessary. Meaning is made clear by focusing students perceptions, not thru translation.

  16. Teachers silence encourages group cooperation. Teacher avoids praises or criticizes to make students more self-reliant. Self-correction of errors A great deal of meaningful practice without repetition Lg. is for self-expression The syllabus is composed of linguistic structures which are constantly being recycled, not arranged in a linear fashion.

  17. Desuggestopedia The reason for our inefficiency is psychological barriers to learning. We only use 5-10% of our mental capacity To make better use of our reserve capacity, our limitations need to be desuggested. One way to stimulate mental reserves: the integration of fine arts

  18. Principles Learning is facilitated in a cheerful environment. Peripheral learning: a student can learn from what is present in the environment, even if his attention is not directed to it. The teacher should desuggest psychological barriers. The teacher should integrate indirect positive suggestions into the learning situations. e.g. : there is no limit to what you can do

  19. The teacher should present and explain the grammar and vocabulary but not dwell on them. Fine art provides positive suggestions for students. One way that meaning is made clear is thru native language translation.

  20. Communication takes place on two planes: 1. conscious plane: learners attend to the lg. (linguistic message is encoded). 2. subconscious plane: the music suggests that learning is easy and pleasant.

  21. Teacher should avoid repetition in class activities as much as possible. Novelty aids acquisition. It is desirable that students achieve a state of infantilization so that they will be more open to learning. Errors are corrected gently, not in a direct, confrontational manner.

  22. Community Language Learning (CLL) Whole-person learning: teachers consider not only their students intellect, but they also have some understanding of -the relationship among students feelings, -physical reaction, -instinctive protective reactions, -desire to learn

  23. CLL takes its principles from Counseling Learning approach developed by Charles A. Curran Curran found that adults often feel threatened by a new learning situation. One way to deal with students fear: teachers to become language counselors; i.e. someone who is a skillful understander of the struggle students face.

  24. Principles Building a relationship with and among students is very important. Language is for communication. Teacher does not stand in front the class to -reduce the threat & facilitate learning -to foster interaction among students, rather than only from student to teacher

  25. Sharing learners feelings about their learning experience allows them to get to know one another and to build community. Teacher creates an accepting atmosphere guided by the knowledge that each learner is unique. Teacher counsels students; i.e. he doesn t offer advice, but rather shows them that he is really listening to them and understands what they are saying.

  26. Native lg. is used to make meaning clear; students feel secure when they understand everything. Non-defensive learning: SAARRD Security Attention Aggression Reflection Retention Discrimination

  27. Cooperation, not competition is encouraged. Developing a community builds trust & reduces the threat of the new learning situation. Retention will best take place somewhere in between novelty & familiarity (not too new, not too familiar).

  28. Reflection on -language & -what was experienced in community learning In the beginning stages, the syllabus is generated primarily by the students. Students are more willing to learn when they have created the material themselves.

  29. Total Physical Response Chapter 8

  30. Introduction Comprehension Approach: a general app. to FL instruction which gives importance to listening comprehension. Language learning starts first with understanding & ends with production. This is exactly how infants acquire its native language.

  31. Methods fitting within the Comprehension Approach: 1. Natural approach (Krashen & Terrel) -emphasis on basic communication skills (like DM) -comprehensible input (i + 1): meaningful exposure to TL -meaning is given priority over form (voc. acquisisionis stressed) -acquisition is favored over learning -low affective filter 2. Self-instructional program (Winitz & Reeds) & The Learnables(Winitz) -listening to tape-recorded words, phrases, & sentences while looking at pictures 3. Lexical Approach (Lewis) -less concerned with production and more concerned with comprehension -centrality of lexicon & multiword lexical items (chunks), not grammar, functions, etc. 4. Total Physical Response (Asher) 5. -the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding is to follow the directions

  32. Principles Meaning can often be conveyed thru actions. Beginning lg. instruction should address the right hemisphere of the brain which controls nonverbal behavior. The TL should be presented in chunks, not just word by word.

  33. Understanding should be developed before speaking. The imperative is a powerful linguistic device thru which the teacher can direct student behavior. Feeling of success & low anxiety facilitate learning.

  34. Correction should be done in an unobtrusive manner (not easily noticed). Novelty is motivating (teacher gives students commands they ve not heard before). Lg. learning is more effective when it is fun.

  35. Spoken lg. is emphasized over written lg. Students will begin to speak when they are ready. Errors are expected & should be tolerated (working on the fine details of the lg. should be postponed until students have become proficient).

  36. Communicative Language Teaching Chapter 9

  37. Introduction Shift from linguistic structure-centered approach to a Communicative Approachin the late 1970s and early 1980s. Language is fundamentally social. Being able to communicate requires more than mastering linguistic structure (linguistic competence). Communication requires communicative competence knowing when and how saying what to whom (Hymes, 1971_.

  38. Communicative Competence Language Socialization in SLA: -of paramount importance in LA -it "stands to contribute the most to an understanding of the cognitive, cultural, social, and political complexity of language learning" Social constructivist perspectives: -central focus -language as interactive communication among individuals, each with a sociocultural identity

  39. DEFINLNG COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE (CC) Coined by Dell Hymes (1972,1967), a sociolinguist Hymesbelieved that Chomsky's (1965) notion of competence was too limited. Chomsky's "rule-governed creativity" did not account sufficiently for the social and functional rules of language.

  40. Hymes referred to CC as that aspect of our competence that enables us to convey and interpret messages and to negotiate meanings interpersonally within specific contexts. Savignon noted that "communicative competence is relative, not absolute, and depends on the cooperation of all the participants involved." It is not so much an intrapersonal construct as we saw in Chomsky's early writings but rather a dynamic, interpersonal construct

  41. linguisticcompetence vs. communicativecompetence knowledge "about" language forms knowledge that enables a person to communicate functionally and interactively

  42. James Cummins (1980, 1979) introduced CALPvs. BICS CALP :cognitive/academic language proficiency (linguistic) BICS: basic interpersonal communicative skills (communicative) CALP is that dimension of proficiency in which the learner manipulates or reflects upon the surface features of language outside of the immediate interpersonal context. It is what learners often use in classroom exercises and tests that focus on form. BICS is the communicative capacity that all children acquire in order to be able to function in daily interpersonal exchanges.

  43. Cummins later (1981) modified his notion of CALP and BICS (dimension of context is added): Context-reduced communication CALP BICS Classroom & school language face-to-face communication vs. Context-embedded communication

  44. Swain's and later in Canale's (1983) definition, four different components, or subcategories, made up the construct of CC. The first two subcategories reflected the use of the linguistic system itself; the last two defined the functional aspects of communication 1.Grammatical competence 2.Discourse competence 3.Sociolinguistic competence 4.Strategic competence

  45. Strategic Competence: occupies a special place Compensatory strategies Swain (1984, p, 189) amended the earlier notion of strategic competence to include "communication strategies that may be called into action either to enhance the effectiveness of communication or to compensate for breakdowns." Yule and Tarone(1990, p. 181) referred to strategic competence as "an ability to select an effective means of performing a communicative act that enables the listener/reader to identify the intended referent. In fact, strategic competence is the way we manipulate language in order to meet communicative goals

  46. Bachmans (1990) model of CC

  47. Here, strategic competence almost serves an "executive" function of making the final "decision," among many possible options, on wording, phrasing, and other productive and receptive means for negotiating meaning.

  48. LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS Functions are essentially the purposes that we accomplish with language, e.g., stating, requesting, responding, greeting, parting, etc. Functions cannot be accomplished, of course, without the forms of language: morphemes, words, grammar rules, discourse rules, and other organizational competencies. While forms are the outward manifestation of language, functions are the realization of those forms.

  49. Communication is not merely an event, something that happens; it is functional, purposive, and designed to bring about some effect some change, however subtle or unobservable on the environment of hearers and speakers. Communication is a series of communicative acts or speech acts, to use John Austin's (1962) term, which are used systematically to accomplish particular purposes. Austin stressed the importance of consequences, the perlocutionaryforce, of linguistic communication.

  50. Principles Authentic lg. lg as it is used in a real context should be introduced. Understanding the speaker s or writer s intentionsis part of being communicatively competent. TL is a vehicle for classroom communication, not just the object of study.

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