Gender Equality in Post-Conflict Societies: Challenges and Opportunities
Discrimination against women and girls can persist or worsen post-conflict, affecting their access to resources and participation in reconstruction processes. Sustainable peace requires women's involvement and gender perspectives integration. Political, economic, and social reconstruction must prioritize gender equality to create democratic, equal societies. Legal frameworks and legislation should be gender-sensitive to address discriminatory laws and ensure women's rights in areas like violence, marriage, and nationality. Judicial systems need to be gender-fair to eliminate bias against women and girls.
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REHABILITATION GROUP 4 Group members: Jagiri ebitimi Moses 14/SMS09/045 Igbokwe Princess 14/SMS10/002 Jegede Famous .O. 15/SMS11/026
Discrimination against women and girls and gender inequalities can persist or deepen during the period after conflict, thereby limiting the opportunities women and adolescent girls have to play implementation of peace and reconstruction processes. Women and girls compared with men and boys have unequal access to resources during and after conflict. Men are usually better placed to be involved in, and benefit from, reconstruction initiatives, often because of their greater participation in public life before conflict. Men also tend to have greater control over economic resources and more However, there have been situations in which women and girls and their organizations and networks have been able to share in shaping political, economic and social reconstruction processes. Sustainable and durable peace requires the participation of women and girls, as well as the integration of gender perspectives in all reconstruction processes. Reconstruction efforts which are based on human rights principles, including non-discrimination, can avoid perpetuating situations of inequality and discrimination and lead to the creation of more equitable and sustainable significant roles in the design and education than women. societies.
Political, economy and social reconstruction. Political reconstruction: The period of transition after a conflict provides an opportunity to create a democratic and equal society. The 2002 Human Development Report suggests that key features of such a society include a system of representation, with well-functioning political parties and special interest associations; an electoral system that guarantees free and fair elections, as well as universal suffrage; a system of checks and balances, based on the separation of powers with independent judicial and legislative branches; a vibrant civil society, able to monitor government and private businesses and provide alternative forms of political participation; a free, independent media; and an effective civilian control over the military and other security forces. reform processes during participation of women and take account of gender perspectives. In addition to establishing the legal framework of the State, Constitutions frequently include bills of rights which define political, civil, economic, social, cultural and religious rights, and provide mechanisms to enforce those rights. In Cambodia, a consultative process, including women of all socioeconomic classes and from all parts of the country, accompanied the drafting of the Constitution during the UNTAC operational period Constitutional reconstruction should include the
Other legislation should also be prepared from a gender perspective and its preparation should involve the participation of women. Existing laws which discriminate against women and girls should be repealed or amended. . Existing laws which discriminate against women and girls should be repealed or amended. Legislation to address specific areas, such as violence against women, particularly domestic and sexual violence, harmful traditional practices, marriage, divorce, custody, property and inheritance rights, should be formulated. Nationality laws should ensure that women retain their right to independent nationality on marriage, and grant them equal rights with men with respect to the nationality of their children. A gender-sensitive judiciary is critical to remove gender bias within courts which curbs the rights of women and girls and perpetuates discrimination and inequality. In some post-conflict contexts, women and adolescent girls have not received favourable court decisions regarding custody of children, rights to property or inheritance, or the right to be free of violence. In Kosovo, for example, husbands or fathers accused of sexual or physical violence were not convicted in criminal trials on grounds of lack of evidence , despite the presentation of photographs and statements of witnesses.
Political reconstruction cont The equitable representation of women on most of these security and police forces has not improved. In Haiti, only 7 per cent of the new police force are women, a majority of whom serve as desk officers or traffic police. In El Salvador, the number of women in the police force has fallen from 7 per cent to under 6 per cent. Increasing the representation of women within security forces is important for a variety of reasons, including in order to be able to deal adequately with the high levels of domestic battering and sexual assaults that increase in post-conflict situations.
Economic reconstruction Economic reconstruction: Armed conflict usually results in significant damage to overall economic infrastructure. Physical damage alone has a profound economic impact. Reconstruction efforts often include macro-economic support, strengthening of economic institutions and infrastructure reconstruction along with micro -level initiatives to try to generate employment, build marketable skills, and support small business development. Efforts to understand the gender dimensions of post-conflict economic reconstruction require a clear understanding of the pre-conflict economy and how it changed during the war. Crucial dimensions include the general position of women and men in the economy (across and within sectors, urban and rural patterns, formal and informal economies), differential vocational skills and educational profiles, access to capital, social attitudes to men and women s work, the distribution of domestic responsibilities and how this affects women s and men s work lives, and different mobility patterns for women and men.
Economic reconstruction cont. International reconstruction initiatives often provide new labour opportunities for women or adolescent girls, for example, as translators, secretaries, and mid-level programme administrators. On the other hand, large scale intervention, particularly the influx of foreign aid workers, troops and currency can significantly distort and undermine local economies where women are particularly active. For example, in East Timor, women and adolescent girls dominate the informal sector as housekeepers, cooks, childcare providers, and restaurant and hotel staff servicing internationals associated with the peacekeeping operation. Even when women and adolescent girls are part of the formal economy, there may be marked differences in attitudes towards their employment after conflict. After the formal conclusion of peace accords, women and adolescent girls who fought and worked side by side with men and adolescent boys may be expected to stay at home and fulfil family responsibilities. Advances in employment opportunities of the economy do not keep pace with the demand for jobs from male ex- combatants. Women and adolescent girls who, for different reasons, do not retreat into their homes may be considered problems.
Economic reconstruction cont In the aftermath of conflict, effects of the mining of agricultural fields, extensive environmental damage, and the destruction of farm equipment and the theft of animals contribute to the constraints faced by small-scale farmers, including women. With the loss of male family members, women or girl-headed households may encounter legal and cultural barriers to retaining and cultivating their lands and obtaining farming implements or agricultural inputs. At times they may be dispossessed of their lands and have to shift to casual agricultural labour, which erodes their material and social positions. In these urban settings women and adolescent girls may not have adequate social networks to draw upon for assistance and may have difficulties in benefiting fully from the new opportunities. When the rates of employment of women are growing and those of men are declining in both the formal and informal sectors, and when there are large numbers of unemployed male ex-combatants, women s economic activities may lead to increased tensions between women and men. This is especially so if women are active in areas previously dominated by men
Economic reconstruction cont. During post-conflict periods many women and adolescent girls are in need of skills training for income-generating activities. Special programmes for credit and income-generating skills that target women and adolescent girls have been prone to design flaws, such as the lack of market feasibility, and have led to resistance from men who have prevented their wives or daughters from participating in training courses.21 In El Salvador and Eritrea, lack of childcare in contexts where women were solely responsible for parenting made it almost impossible for women to participate in training or work outside the home. Existing legal and social barriers for women and adolescent girls to employment and educational opportunities do not vanish with the end of the conflict. Targeted legislation and other interventions are needed to overcome these barriers. Legislation is necessary to enable women and adolescent girls to receive credit, to buy, rent or inherit land and property, and to be legally recognized as heads of households, widows, divorcees and parents or guardians. Afghanistan, during the regime of the Taliban, is an extreme example of the denial of the right to work and basic social services that women and girls were forced to endure both during conflict and upon entry into the post-conflict period.
Social reconstruction Social reconstruction includes the reconstruction of damaged or destroyed social sectors, including health care, education and social service institutions, and involves a long-term process of social healing and re - integration. The severe disruption to social networks caused by armed conflict contributes in the post-conflict period to growing numbers of marginalized groups, including war widows, child-headed households, orphans, the disabled and child soldiers. Reconstruction of the social sector: Health care facilities and workers may be targeted during conflict and thus there is often reduced primary health care available in post-conflict situations. The establishment or re -establishment of a functioning health care system is an important priority in post-conflict situations because of serious health care needs (some ongoing and some caused directly by the conflict). There are psycho-social health problems, disabilities and health issues caused by the cumulative effect of neglecting health issues during the conflict. Physical and psychological health effects of war are carried into the post-conflict periods. Studies from conflict areas have found that women and girls suffer more than men and boys from reproductive and sexual health problems due to poor nutrition, sanitation and sexual abuse, and that men and boys experience problems due to injuries received during the fighting, including shrapnel, bullet and machete wounds. Where health care facilities are damaged or non-existent, women usually take responsibility for continuing to provide basic care to their families and neighbours, using their extended social networks. Women and adolescent girls have mobilized to address the health problems arising from, or increasing with conflict, including the effects of gender-based violence and psychosocial trauma due to violence and displacement.
Social reconstruction cont. Education is a critical resource for stabilizing communities, rebuilding economies and building peace. Women stress that education for themselves and their children is a top priority during reconstruction. Both girls and boys show great desire to return to school. Just as there is a vast body of lessons on the gender dimensions of the health sector, there are also analyses and guides on how and why gender issues are relevant in education initiatives. These insights, which require adaptation to the post-conflict period, can be useful. Particular areas of concern include education policy/ investments curricula, access of both boys and girls to schools, and teacher training. For example, teacher training and education programmes need to take into account the differences in the experiences of women and girls and men and boys during the conflict. Development of teacher sensitization programmes and appropriate classroom materials that promote understanding of gender equality in the context of community-building can help address some of the inequalities and biases that may have been exacerbated during the conflict. In some cases, girls may be denied their right to education because of social, cultural, religious or political restrictions. In situations of poverty it has proven difficult for families to support the enrolment of girls in schools over sustained periods because of the need for their labour inputs. In the absence of economic growth that increases the proportion of household income provided by able-bodied adults, families cannot afford to lose the contribution to household food and economic security that girls provide. Lack of money for books, clothes or fees, in addition to the need for the labour of adolescents and younger girls in the household, leads to high drop-out rates in post- conflict situations.
Social healing and reintegration Support to the reconstruction process necessitates greater understanding of the ways in which communities, households and individuals have been affected by conflict. Changes in power relations take place within communities and households, which create opportunities, but also new roles in some contexts for women in the post-conflict period. In many cases, household composition has changed due, for example, to remarriages during the conflict. Children and dependants may have been added to the family while others may have been abandoned. Rural to urban migration may increase, with urban dynamics often markedly different from those in rural areas. Because of the lack of rights to land and property and employment opportunities young people, and young women in particular, may be more susceptible to exploitation or abuse, such as trafficking, prostitution or other illicit activities.
Social reconstruction cont. Refugees and the internally displaced may also seek to return to their former homes and lands. Many return to find their home environments hostile to them, with others having occupied their homes and lands. The climate of suspicion makes it increasingly difficult for returnees to rebuild their homes and lives. At times, it is believed that those who left were granted special privileges or are returning with wealth, which may lead, as in post-conflict Chad, to women returnees being charged higher prices in the markets. Women and girls experience displacement and return differently from men and boys. Behaviours and skills that women and adolescent girls developed while displaced may be viewed as threatening and result in public criticism, as in post-conflict Guatemala. Men may abandon wives and children upon return, claiming the unions had no legal basis, as occurred in post-conflict Cambodia. Internally displaced and refugee women may find that they have no rights to recover their property, including their homes, and may be forced to surrender custody of their children. Problems may be exacerbated for child-headed households, with girl-headed households particularly marginalized. In such instances, intervention to promote change in national and customary laws that discriminate against women and girls is necessary. The decision to return, integrate or resettle requires consultation with all members of a family. Returning refugees or persons against their will may result in future protection problems. Men often return to the family s country or place of origin in advance to prepare for the family s return, leaving their women and children to fend for themselves. In this situation women and girls may be subjected to abuse, including sexual violence. Refugee women left without support are frequently forced to turn to other means to survive, including begging and prostitution, as some Afghans in Pakistan were forced to do.33 Mechanisms are necessary to ensure that women and girls do not have trouble accessing food, shelter, health care and medicine for which they are eligible as a result of the departure of the male head of household. Diligent monitoring by community services is required to provide the first indication of such human rights violations within the family and community.
Social reconstruction cont Uprooting can sometimes open up new opportunities for women and adolescent girls as they are forced to take on roles that they would never have anticipated fulfilling before flight. As in the case of demobilized female combatants, many uprooted women and girls are pressured back into their old roles upon return. Frameworks, such as UNHCR s People- Oriented Planning, can facilitate a review of the needs, talents and resources of every group of refugees, returnees and displaced persons (including women and men) during the various stages of flight and return, in order to help them maximize their potential.
