Gas Exchange in Cells and Organisms
Cell vs. Organism
GAS EXCHANGE
Gas exchange
•
Gas exchange takes place
at a respiratory surface-a
boundary between the
external environment
and the interior of the
body.
•
Gases cross the
respiratory surface by
diffusion and must have
–
A large surface area
–
A thin permeable
membrane
–
A moist environment
Gas exchange-organism
•
In plants, gas is exchanged through the
leaves.
Gas exchange-cells
•
In plants, gas exchange usually takes place
through their stomata.
•
Stomata are small openings present on the
epidermis of the leaves.
Gas exchange-cells
•
These stomata open into spongy parenchyma
and the gas exchange takes place between the
cell and the gas filled in the air space.
•
Gas exchange is needed for both respiration
and photosynthesis.
Gas exchange-organism
•
Alveoli are structures present in the lungs
(the well-developed organ system for the
effective exchange of gases between
atmosphere and the blood present in
terrestrial organism).
•
Lungs are elastic sacs that allow the animal to
pump air in and out of the body.
Gas exchange-organism
•
The trachea of the lungs
divide into two branches,
which in turn divide into
many sub-branches
known as bronchioles.
•
Bronchioles end in small,
thin-walled sacs known as
alveoli. The presence of
alveoli increases the
effected surface area for
gaseous exchange.
•
Alveoli have a rich supply
of fine blood vessels with
very thin walls through
which gas can easily
diffuse into and out.
Gas exchange-cell
•
Water diffuses from the alveoli cells into the
alveoli so that they are constantly moist.
•
Oxygen dissolves in this water before diffusing
through the cells into the blood, where it is
taken up by hemoglobin in the red blood cells.
NUTRIENT UPTAKE AND
PROCESSING
Nutrient uptake and processing-
organism
•
Plants get nutrients
from photosynthesis
(the process by
which plant leaves
take in carbon
dioxide from the air
for nourishment, as
well as absorbing
available sunlight for
food).
Nutrient uptake and
processing-organism
•
Carbon dioxide is
absorbed into the leaves
through the stomata,
which then goes into the
cells that contain
chlorophyll (the pigment
that gives plants their
green color and is capable
of converting the energy
gained from sunlight into
food for the plant).
•
Plants also get nutrients
and water form the soil
through their root
systems.
Nutrient uptake and processing-cell
•
The plasma membrane of the plant cell is a
selectively permeable barrier that ensures the
entry of essential ions and metabolites into
the cell.
Nutrient uptake and processing-
organism
•
Animals are heterotrophs (organisms that
cannot make their own organic compounds).
In order to get the organic compounds they
need they have to eat other living things.
•
Herbivores get their nutrients from plants,
carnivores from other animals and the
digested plant material in those animals, and
omnivores can get it from plants or animals.
Nutrient uptake and processing-
organism
•
The process in which an
animal changes nutrients
to energy is complex.
•
A substance enters the
mouth first and is broken
down by saliva and other
acids into smaller units
that can be swallowed.
•
The substance then
travels down into the
throat and into the
esophagus which leads to
the stomach.
Nutrient uptake and
processing-organism
•
In the stomach, the
substance is broken
down even more
before being
subjected to more
breaking down from
other organs.
•
It finally reaches the
intestines where the
nutrients are
absorbed.
Nutrient uptake and processing-cell
•
Hemoglobin carry oxygen from the lungs and
heart to the muscle cells in the body.
•
Within the innermost region of the cell are the
mitochondria (the powerhouse of the cell).
The nutrients are converted to energy here.
WASTE EXCRETION
Waste excretion-organism
•
Oxygen produced in plants is diffused out
through the stomata or through the cell walls
of roots and other plant structures.
•
Excess water passes to the exterior via similar
routes and is eliminated by process of droplet
exudation (the act or an instance of oozing
forth) and transpiration (evaporation of water
from plant surfaces).
Waste excretion-
organism
•
Green plants in darkness
or plants without
chlorophyll have water
and carbon dioxide as
waste products. Carbon
dioxide is secreted in the
same manner as oxygen
(diffusion through
stomata)
•
Some plants exude resins,
saps, or latexes which are
forced from the interior
of the plant by
hydrostatic pressures
inside the plant and by
absorptive forces of plant
cells.
Waste excretion-organism
•
In animals whose
bodies consist of a
single layer of
cells, waste
disposal is
accomplished
principally by
diffusion from the
site of waste
production to the
outside
environment.
Waste excretion-organism
•
The kidney and its
associated ducts are the
excretory system of the
mammal, and, as already
noted, most of the
nitrogenous waste arising
in the mammalian body is
excreted as urea.
•
Other nitrogenous
compounds regularly
present in the urine of
smaller amounts are uric
acid and creatine; both of
these arise mainly as by-
products of the renewal
and repair of tissues.
Waste excretion-organism
•
In birds, reptiles, and amphibians the kidneys
are compact organs, as they are in mammals,
but in fishes they are narrow bands of tissue
running the length of the body.
•
In amphibians, as in mammals, the main
excretory product is urea.
•
In birds and reptiles it is uric acid.
•
In most fishes the main excretory product is
ammonia.
Waste excretion-cell
•
The cell gets rid of waste by bringing it close to the cell
membrane and then it closes the membrane around
the waste, isolating it from the rest of the cell.
•
The cell will then open the membrane on the outside
of the cell, letting the garbage out without losing any
cytoplasm or letting anything else in.
Waste excretion-cell
•
Lysosomes also get rid of waste in cells. Old, worn-out
parts, excess mitochondria, or poisons are surrounded by
the lysosome in a membrane bubble.
•
The enzymes inside the lysosome break down the waste
into small molecules that can fit through the cell
membrane.
•
Then the lysosome floats through the cytoplasm to the cell
membrane where it is released from the cell like previously
described.
NERVOUS AND HORMONAL
REGULATION
Nervous and hormonal
regulation
•
Neural regulation of
hormone release is
when neuronal
input to an
endocrine cell
increases or
decreases hormonal
secretion.
Nervous and hormonal regulation
•
A type of neural regulation concerns endocrine cells
that are found in the brain.
•
These cells are called neurosecretory cells, and like
typical neurons, they have dendrites, axons, and
terminals. The only difference is that their terminals
are adjacent to capillaries.
•
The regulatory molecules they secrete enter the
circulation and act as hormones.
•
Hormone secretion is regulated by neurons that form
synapses with the dendrites of the neurosecretory cell.
Nervous and
hormonal regulation
•
Auxin, a hormone in plants,
has been found to promote
cell elongation.
•
Auxin causes the small,
square, and densely packed
new cells to pump
hydrogen into their cell
walls.
•
The higher pH activates
enzymes to break cross
linkages in the wall allowing
the ever present turgor
pressure to elongate these
cells.
REPRODUCTION
Reproduction-cell
•
Cells reproduce and replicate through mitosis
and meiosis.
Reproduction-cell
•
Mitosis is a process of
cellular division that is
unique to eukaryotic cells.
•
When mitosis is complete,
each cell will have the
same genetic material
that the original cell had
before replication.
•
Each of the new cells are
also identical to each
other.
•
Once telophase is
complete, the cell returns
to interphase.
Reproduction-cell
•
The stages of mitosis are:
–
Interphase
•
Time between divisions, protein synthesis carried out, chromatin present,
nucleolus present, DNA replicated towards division time.
–
Prophase
•
Chromatin thickens into chromosomes, nuclear membrane disintegrates,
centriole pairs move to opposite ends of the cell, spindle fibers begin to form.
–
Metaphase
•
Guided by the spindle fibers, the chromosomes pairs line up along the center of
the spindle structure.
–
Anaphase
•
The chromosome pairs begin to pull apart, once separated, they are called
daughter chromosomes, due to pull, many chromosomes bend, groove in
plasma membrane present,
–
Telophase
•
Chromosomes return to chromatin, spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane
takes shape again, centrioles replicate, membrane continues to pinch inward (in
plant cells a new cell wall is laid)
Reproduction-cell
•
In Meiosis, all gametes
have half the number of
chromosomes that regular
cells have. Gametes are
created through the
process of meiosis. Meiosis
involves two division which
create four haploid cells.
•
In phase I the stages are
interphase I, prophase I,
metaphase I, anaphase I,
and telophase I.
•
In phase II, the stages are
interphase II, prophase II,
metaphase II, anaphase II,
and telophase II.
Reproduction-organism
•
Reproduction is the creation of anew
individual or individuals from previously
existing individuals.
•
In animals there are two primary ways that
this can occur: asexual reproduction and
sexual reproduction.
Reproduction-organism
•
In asexual
reproduction, one
individual produces
offspring that are
genetically identical to
itself.
•
These offspring are
produced by mitosis.
Reproduction-organism
•
Common forms of asexual
reproduction include:
–
Budding, where the offspring
grows out of the body of the
parent.
–
Gemmules, where the parent
releases a specialized mass of
cells that can develop into
offspring.
–
Fragmentation, where the body
of the parent breaks into
distinct pieces, each of which
can produce an offspring.
–
Regeneration, where a
detached piece of the parent
can grow and develop into a
completely new individual.
–
Parthenogenesis is the
development of an egg that has
not been fertilized into an
individual.
Reproduction-organism
•
During sexual reproduction, two individuals
produce offspring that have genetic
characteristics from both parents.
•
Sexual reproduction introduces new gene
combinations in a population.
Reproduction-organism
•
Gametes
–
In animals, sexual reproduction encompasses the
fusion of two distinct gametes to form a zygote.
–
Gametes are produced by meiosis.
–
The gametes contain only one set of
chromosomes while the zygote contains two sets
of chromosomes.
Reproduction-organism
•
There are two mechanisms by which
fertilization can take place.
–
The first is external, where the eggs are fertilized
outside of the body.
–
The second is internal, where the eggs are
fertilized within the female reproductive tract.
Gas exchange is vital for cellular respiration and photosynthesis. In organisms, specialized structures like alveoli in lungs and stomata in plants facilitate this process. This exchange occurs through diffusion across moist surfaces with large surface areas. In animals, oxygen is taken up by hemoglobin in red blood cells, while in plants, it mainly happens through leaves and stomata. Efficient gas exchange is crucial for the survival of cells and organisms.
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Presentation Transcript
Gas exchange Gas exchange takes place at a respiratory surface-a boundary between the external environment and the interior of the body. Gases cross the respiratory surface by diffusion and must have A large surface area A thin permeable membrane A moist environment
Gas exchange-organism In plants, gas is exchanged through the leaves.
Gas exchange-cells In plants, gas exchange usually takes place through their stomata. Stomata are small openings present on the epidermis of the leaves.
Gas exchange-cells These stomata open into spongy parenchyma and the gas exchange takes place between the cell and the gas filled in the air space. Gas exchange is needed for both respiration and photosynthesis.
Gas exchange-organism Alveoli are structures present in the lungs (the well-developed organ system for the effective exchange of gases between atmosphere and the blood present in terrestrial organism). Lungs are elastic sacs that allow the animal to pump air in and out of the body.
Gas exchange-organism The trachea of the lungs divide into two branches, which in turn divide into many sub-branches known as bronchioles. Bronchioles end in small, thin-walled sacs known as alveoli. The presence of alveoli increases the effected surface area for gaseous exchange. Alveoli have a rich supply of fine blood vessels with very thin walls through which gas can easily diffuse into and out.
Gas exchange-cell Water diffuses from the alveoli cells into the alveoli so that they are constantly moist. Oxygen dissolves in this water before diffusing through the cells into the blood, where it is taken up by hemoglobin in the red blood cells.
NUTRIENT UPTAKE AND PROCESSING
Nutrient uptake and processing- organism Plants get nutrients from photosynthesis (the process by which plant leaves take in carbon dioxide from the air for nourishment, as well as absorbing available sunlight for food).
Nutrient uptake and processing-organism Carbon dioxide is absorbed into the leaves through the stomata, which then goes into the cells that contain chlorophyll (the pigment that gives plants their green color and is capable of converting the energy gained from sunlight into food for the plant). Plants also get nutrients and water form the soil through their root systems.
Nutrient uptake and processing-cell The plasma membrane of the plant cell is a selectively permeable barrier that ensures the entry of essential ions and metabolites into the cell.
Nutrient uptake and processing- organism Animals are heterotrophs (organisms that cannot make their own organic compounds). In order to get the organic compounds they need they have to eat other living things. Herbivores get their nutrients from plants, carnivores from other animals and the digested plant material in those animals, and omnivores can get it from plants or animals.
Nutrient uptake and processing- organism The process in which an animal changes nutrients to energy is complex. A substance enters the mouth first and is broken down by saliva and other acids into smaller units that can be swallowed. The substance then travels down into the throat and into the esophagus which leads to the stomach.
Nutrient uptake and processing-organism In the stomach, the substance is broken down even more before being subjected to more breaking down from other organs. It finally reaches the intestines where the nutrients are absorbed.
Nutrient uptake and processing-cell Hemoglobin carry oxygen from the lungs and heart to the muscle cells in the body. Within the innermost region of the cell are the mitochondria (the powerhouse of the cell). The nutrients are converted to energy here.
Waste excretion-organism Oxygen produced in plants is diffused out through the stomata or through the cell walls of roots and other plant structures. Excess water passes to the exterior via similar routes and is eliminated by process of droplet exudation (the act or an instance of oozing forth) and transpiration (evaporation of water from plant surfaces).
Waste excretion- organism Green plants in darkness or plants without chlorophyll have water and carbon dioxide as waste products. Carbon dioxide is secreted in the same manner as oxygen (diffusion through stomata) Some plants exude resins, saps, or latexes which are forced from the interior of the plant by hydrostatic pressures inside the plant and by absorptive forces of plant cells.
Waste excretion-organism In animals whose bodies consist of a single layer of cells, waste disposal is accomplished principally by diffusion from the site of waste production to the outside environment.
Waste excretion-organism The kidney and its associated ducts are the excretory system of the mammal, and, as already noted, most of the nitrogenous waste arising in the mammalian body is excreted as urea. Other nitrogenous compounds regularly present in the urine of smaller amounts are uric acid and creatine; both of these arise mainly as by- products of the renewal and repair of tissues.
Waste excretion-organism In birds, reptiles, and amphibians the kidneys are compact organs, as they are in mammals, but in fishes they are narrow bands of tissue running the length of the body. In amphibians, as in mammals, the main excretory product is urea. In birds and reptiles it is uric acid. In most fishes the main excretory product is ammonia.
Waste excretion-cell The cell gets rid of waste by bringing it close to the cell membrane and then it closes the membrane around the waste, isolating it from the rest of the cell. The cell will then open the membrane on the outside of the cell, letting the garbage out without losing any cytoplasm or letting anything else in.
Waste excretion-cell Lysosomes also get rid of waste in cells. Old, worn-out parts, excess mitochondria, or poisons are surrounded by the lysosome in a membrane bubble. The enzymes inside the lysosome break down the waste into small molecules that can fit through the cell membrane. Then the lysosome floats through the cytoplasm to the cell membrane where it is released from the cell like previously described.
NERVOUS AND HORMONAL REGULATION
Nervous and hormonal regulation Neural regulation of hormone release is when neuronal input to an endocrine cell increases or decreases hormonal secretion.
Nervous and hormonal regulation A type of neural regulation concerns endocrine cells that are found in the brain. These cells are called neurosecretory cells, and like typical neurons, they have dendrites, axons, and terminals. The only difference is that their terminals are adjacent to capillaries. The regulatory molecules they secrete enter the circulation and act as hormones. Hormone secretion is regulated by neurons that form synapses with the dendrites of the neurosecretory cell.
Nervous and hormonal regulation Auxin, a hormone in plants, has been found to promote cell elongation. Auxin causes the small, square, and densely packed new cells to pump hydrogen into their cell walls. The higher pH activates enzymes to break cross linkages in the wall allowing the ever present turgor pressure to elongate these cells.
Reproduction-cell Cells reproduce and replicate through mitosis and meiosis.
Reproduction-cell Mitosis is a process of cellular division that is unique to eukaryotic cells. When mitosis is complete, each cell will have the same genetic material that the original cell had before replication. Each of the new cells are also identical to each other. Once telophase is complete, the cell returns to interphase.
Reproduction-cell The stages of mitosis are: Interphase Time between divisions, protein synthesis carried out, chromatin present, nucleolus present, DNA replicated towards division time. Prophase Chromatin thickens into chromosomes, nuclear membrane disintegrates, centriole pairs move to opposite ends of the cell, spindle fibers begin to form. Metaphase Guided by the spindle fibers, the chromosomes pairs line up along the center of the spindle structure. Anaphase The chromosome pairs begin to pull apart, once separated, they are called daughter chromosomes, due to pull, many chromosomes bend, groove in plasma membrane present, Telophase Chromosomes return to chromatin, spindle disintegrates, nuclear membrane takes shape again, centrioles replicate, membrane continues to pinch inward (in plant cells a new cell wall is laid)
Reproduction-cell In Meiosis, all gametes have half the number of chromosomes that regular cells have. Gametes are created through the process of meiosis. Meiosis involves two division which create four haploid cells. In phase I the stages are interphase I, prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I, and telophase I. In phase II, the stages are interphase II, prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II.
Reproduction-organism Reproduction is the creation of anew individual or individuals from previously existing individuals. In animals there are two primary ways that this can occur: asexual reproduction and sexual reproduction.
Reproduction-organism In asexual reproduction, one individual produces offspring that are genetically identical to itself. These offspring are produced by mitosis.
Reproduction-organism Common forms of asexual reproduction include: Budding, where the offspring grows out of the body of the parent. Gemmules, where the parent releases a specialized mass of cells that can develop into offspring. Fragmentation, where the body of the parent breaks into distinct pieces, each of which can produce an offspring. Regeneration, where a detached piece of the parent can grow and develop into a completely new individual. Parthenogenesis is the development of an egg that has not been fertilized into an individual.
Reproduction-organism During sexual reproduction, two individuals produce offspring that have genetic characteristics from both parents. Sexual reproduction introduces new gene combinations in a population.
Reproduction-organism Gametes In animals, sexual reproduction encompasses the fusion of two distinct gametes to form a zygote. Gametes are produced by meiosis. The gametes contain only one set of chromosomes while the zygote contains two sets of chromosomes.
Reproduction-organism There are two mechanisms by which fertilization can take place. The first is external, where the eggs are fertilized outside of the body. The second is internal, where the eggs are fertilized within the female reproductive tract.
