Evolution of Radiopharmacy: A Specialized Field in Pharmacy

Alkhair Adam Khalil
, 
B. Pharm, M. Pharm
College of Pharmacy – Karary University
Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry
Radiopharmaceuticals
Radiopharmaceuticals
Fourth year -Semester VIII
2021
undefined
Introduction:
Introduction:
The evolution of 
radiopharmacy
 as a 
specialty
 has been extremely
rapid when compared to other disciplines within pharmacy. The
preparation
, 
dispensing
, and 
clinical
 
investigation
 of 
radioactive
materials
 as 
drugs
 started experimentally early in the 1950s with
the use of 
131
I and 
32
P.
As the early use of these and other nuclides evolved and as the
importance of 
labeled
 compounds as 
imaging
 
agents
 became
recognized, primary development of radiopharmaceuticals lay with
the research radiochemist and physician.
The proliferation of these radioactive imaging agents required the
parallel development of 
specialists
 
qualified
 to 
prepare
, run 
quality
control
 on, run 
clinical
 
studies
 on, and 
dispense
 these agents.
In short, by evolution 
radiopharmacy
 and the 
radiopharmacist
emerged as an essential discipline and as a partner to 
nuclear
medicine
 and the nuclear medicine 
physician
.
undefined
Definitions:
Definitions:
1.
Radiopharmacy:
Radiopharmacy:
Is the 
place
 where 
radioactive
 
drugs
 are 
prepared
and 
dispensed
. The radiopharmacy also serves as a
depot
 for the 
storage
 of radioactive materials and
nonradioactive
 supplies.
The radiopharmacy is responsible for 
quality
control
 of the radiopharmaceuticals. The 
routine
preparation
 
procedures
 often incorporate quality
control tests for radiochemical purity.
undefined
Definitions:
Definitions:
2.
Radiopharmaceuticals:
Radiopharmaceuticals:
The term is defined as “
radioactive
 
drug
” that exhibits
spontaneous
 
disintegration
 of 
unstable
 
nuclei
 with the
emission
 of 
nuclear particles 
or 
photons
 and includes
any 
nonradioactive
 
reagent
 
kit
 or 
nuclide generator 
that is
intended to be used in the preparation of any such
substance.
The term radioactive drug includes radioactive 
biologic
product.
Radiopharmaceuticals are usually classified as 
diagnostic
,
therapeutic
, or 
research
 radiopharmaceuticals.
undefined
Definitions:
Definitions:
2.1. Diagnostic Radiopharmaceuticals:
2.1. Diagnostic Radiopharmaceuticals:
These are radioactive drugs used for 
diagnostic
 purposes as
radioactive tracers 
radioactive tracers 
in patients. These drugs 
broadcast
 their
positions
 within the body by their 
gamma-ray
gamma-ray
 emissions.
By monitoring these broadcasts we can infer the 
concentrations
 of
the tracer material in different 
organs
.
Using the 
signals
, we can even obtain 
low-resolution
 
images
images
 of the
organs.
By monitoring these broadcasts as a 
function
 
of
 
time
, we can 
study
the 
kinetics
kinetics
 and 
metabolism
metabolism
 of the 
drug
 within the body.
The 
monitoring
 
device
 is usually a 
collimated
 external gamma-ray
detector
detector
.
Thus, diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals are administered to patients
to 
differentiate
 
normal
 from 
abnormal
 biochemistry, physiology, or
anatomy.
undefined
Definitions:
Definitions:
2.2. Therapeutic Radiopharmaceuticals:
2.2. Therapeutic Radiopharmaceuticals:
Radioactive substances can be administered to a patient
for the purpose of 
delivering
 
radiation
 to 
body tissues
body tissues
internally
.
The best example of this is the administration of 
iodide
131
I for the purpose of 
thyroid
 
ablation
 in patients who are
hyperthyroid
. The thyroid is 
internally
 
irradiated
 by the
radioactive
 
iodine
 that it 
concentrates
concentrates
.
Other radiopharmaceuticals that are used for therapeutic
purposes are those administered in the treatment of certain
cancers.
cancers.
undefined
Definitions:
Definitions:
2.3. research radiopharmaceuticals (Tracers):
2.3. research radiopharmaceuticals (Tracers):
Another type of radiopharmaceutical is a regular drug 
labeled
 with a
small quantity of 
radioactive
 substances.
They are administered to the patients, not for diagnostic purposes,
but to study the 
metabolism
metabolism
 and 
kinetics
kinetics
 (
biodistribution
) of a drug
that may eventually be used in a nonradioactive form.
3.
Radiopharmacists:
Radiopharmacists:
Responsible for the 
filling
 and 
dispensing
 of 
prescriptions
 for
radioactive tracers and for the 
clinical
 
aspects
 of radiopharmacy.
In order to carry out these functions, 
radiopharmacists
 need to be
trained
 in: 
(1) radioactive tracer techniques
, 
(2) safe handling of
radioactive materials
, and 
(3) preparation and quality control of
drugs prepared for administration to humans
.
undefined
Definitions:
Definitions:
Radiopharmacists
Radiopharmacists
 are also required to understand the
basic principles of 
nuclear medicine 
nuclear medicine 
so that they can
function efficiently when 
troubleshooting
 
clinical
problems
 involving performance failure of the radioactive
tracer in an individual patient.
4.
Nuclear medicine:
Nuclear medicine:
 Nuclear medicine is a 
specialty
 devoted to the 
diagnostic
and 
therapeutic
 use of radioactive compounds.
The spectrum of diagnostic procedures includes (1) static
imaging of organs and compartments, (2) sequential or
functional imaging of physiologic processes, (3) in vivo
tracer studies , and (4) in vitro studies.
undefined
Definitions:
Definitions:
5.
Nuclear medicine physician:
Nuclear medicine physician:
A 
physician
physician
, after fulfilling one of several accepted
combinations of training and experience, and completed
an approved residency program can become qualified,
board-certified
 
nuclear medicine 
physician.
Nuclear medicine is 
interdisciplinary
 in nature and relies
heavily on 
interactions
 with all medical specialties.
Input into the development of this field comes from
continuing 
advances
 in 
electronics
, 
computer
 
science
,
physics
, 
analytical chemistry
, 
nuclear chemistry
, and
radiopharmacy
.
undefined
Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy
Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy
The 
pharmacist
 deals primarily with 
therapeutic
 drugs.
A 
radiopharmacist
 deals primarily with 
diagnostic
 drugs.
Both
 are concerned with drug 
performance
.
Both
 are concerned with 
drug
 
interactions
; one involves
changes in the therapeutic process, and the other
involves change in bio-distribution that influences the
diagnostic process.
Most 
pharmacists
 compound only a 
few
 of the drugs
they dispense. A 
radiopharmacist
 will probably
compound at least 
85%
 of the doses.
Most 
pharmacists
 rely on the manufacturer to carry out
the 
quality control 
testing. A 
radiopharmacist
 often 
does
quality control testing daily on many products.
undefined
Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy
Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy
Most 
radiopharmaceuticals
 are administered 
intravenously
;
thus 
aseptic
 technique and control of 
pyrogens
 is of as
much concern to the 
radiopharmacist
 as it is to the 
hospital
pharmacist
 who prepares parenteral injections.
A 
radiopharmacist
 also is much 
more
 
involved
 in
troubleshooting
 
activities
. When the bio-distribution of a
radioactive tracer is other than expected, it becomes the
responsibility of the radiopharmacist to determine the cause
of the problem. The 
bio-distribution
 is usually evident by
the 
quality
 of the 
image
 taken. Thus, bio-distribution is a
daily concern of the radiopharmacist.
undefined
Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy
Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy
The 
radiopharmacist
 is also a 
clinical
 
pharmacist
. He is
concerned with drug interactions and with adverse
reactions.
He is involved with 
consulting
 the 
physicians
 on the
performance
 of the 
tracer
 and in 
recommending
 which
tracers can be used in concert with other drugs that have
been given to the patient.
The radiopharmacist 
consults
 mostly with 
physicians
 and
nuclear
 medical 
technologists
 rather than with patients.
Most 
patient
 
contact
 will involve only the taking of drug
histories
 and the extraction of other 
data
 that can 
influence
the 
bio-distribution
 of the tracer
undefined
Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy
Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy
A regular pharmacy is basically a 
one-way
 street, 
accepting
prescriptions
 primarily 
from
 
patients
 and dispensing most
drugs 
directly
 
to
 the 
patient
.
Only 
rarely
 will 
radiopharmacists
 dispense 
directly
 to a
patient. 
Usually
, the drugs are dispensed to nuclear
medicine 
physicians
 who administer the drugs
intravenously to the patient in the nuclear medicine 
clinic
.
The 
syringes
, 
needles
, and other 
injection
 devices are
radioactive
 
wastes
. Usually, these are returned to the
radiopharmacy for 
disposal
 or 
storage
.
Thus, a radiopharmacy is a 
two-way
 street. The volume of
wastes received may be greater than the volume of
materials dispensed.
undefined
Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy
Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy
The greatest area of difference between a radiopharmacy
and other pharmacies is the 
control of radioactive materials
and the concern for 
radiation safety
.
The 
control
 of radioactive materials is basically 
similar
 to
that of other 
controlled
 
substances
, such as 
narcotics
.
The practice of 
radiation safety 
is basically similar to the
control of microbiologic contamination
. Aseptic techniques
can thus be readily augmented to include radiation safety
technique.
The 
regulatory
 problems of a 
radiopharmacy
 are more
complex
 than those of other pharmacies. Essentially, all
regulations
 that apply to pharmacies or pharmacists apply
to radiopharmacies and radiopharmacists.
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P
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R
a
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i
a
a
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i
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n
 
 
a
a
n
n
d
d
 
 
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R
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Basic Physics of Radiation
The Atom.
The nucleus.
Components of the Nucleus.
Energy content of the Nucleus.
Types of Radiations ( 
alpha , beta, gamma , X-ray
).
Origin/characteristics.
Isotopes & Radioisotopes , Nuclides & Radionuclides.
Nuclear equation/Chemical equation.
Units of Radiation
.
The 
nucleus
 of an atom consists of protons
and neutrons (
two types of 
baryons
baryons
) bound by
the 
nuclear force 
(also known as 
the residual
strong force
). These baryons are further
composed of 
subatomic fundamental particles
known as 
quarks
quarks
 bound by the strong
interaction.
So, what are 
baryon
baryon
 and 
quark
quark
 ????
 ????
Quarks
Quarks
A quark is an 
elementary particle 
and a
fundamental constituent of matter.
Quarks combine to form 
composite particles
called 
hadrons
hadrons
, the most stable of which are
protons
 and 
neutrons
, the components of
atomic nuclei.
There are 
six types (
flavors
) 
of quarks, known
as : 
up
, 
down
, 
strange
, 
charm
, 
bottom
, and
top
.
Standard Model of Elementary Particles
Fermions
Composite particles
Composite particles
Hadrons:
Hadrons:
 are defined as strongly interacting composite
particles. Hadrons are either:
1. Fermions
, they are called 
baryons
.
2. Mesons
.
A.
Baryons:
Baryons:
  
  
Ordinary baryons (
fermions
) contain 
three
 
quarks
 or
three 
antiquarks
.
       example:
    
Nucleons
 are the fermionic constituents of normal atomic nuclei:
Protons
, composed of 
two up and one down 
quark (uud)
Neutrons
, composed of 
two down and one up 
quark (ddu)
B.
Mesons: 
Mesons: 
are made up of a 
quark
 and an 
antiquark
. They 
are not
themselves 
elementary
 
particles
, they 
mediate
 the 
residual
strong
 
force
 between nucleons.
 
Quark structure of Nucleons
Quark structure of Nucleons
(
(
Baryons
Baryons
)
)
 
Proton
uud
 
Neutron
ddu
 
 
Radioactivity
Radioactivity
Basic atomic particulates (natural):-
1.
light
:   electron, neutrino (no charge), meons
2.
Mesons
: (in 
nucleus
)
3.
Heavy
: protons , neutrons. (in 
nucleus
)
Neutron (
mass
) is more than 
proton + electron.
Free 
neutron
 decays in 15 mins
              
neutron
    
  
proton + electron + anti neutrino
Proton is the 
least
 in 
mass
 in its group (others are
artificial), 
 thus stable (
10
 
years
).
atomic
symbol=
X
Atomic number
number of
protons=
Z
Mass number
number of
protons and
neutrons=
A
Nuclide/Nuclear symbol
Nuclide/Nuclear symbol
Decay of Radionuclides
Decay of Radionuclides
Spontaneous Fission:
Spontaneous Fission:
Fission in 
heavy
 nuclei can occur 
spontaneously
 or by
bombardment
 with energetic 
particles
.
Alpha (
α
)Decay.
Beta (
B-
) Decay.
Positron (or 
B+
) Decay.
Electron Capture (
EC
) .
Isomeric Transition (
IT
).
 
Some nuclides are 
unstable
 and they 
split
 up to
form smaller elements. The nucleus splits and
protons and neutrons form new nuclei. The
electrons divide themselves between the two.
Sometimes 
energy
 is produced from this reaction.
This energy is called the 
nuclear energy (Residual
strong force)
.
Particles such as protons, neutrons and electrons 
fly
out while the original nucleus 
divides
.
This process is called radioactive 
decay
decay
 and the
element is said to be 
radioactive
.
The particles and energy are called 
radioactivity
radioactivity
.
undefined
undefined
Neutron – Proton ratio
 
Because protons 
repel
 each
other the nucleus needs a
certain proton to neutron
ratio
 for 
stability
.
Neutrons
 play a key role
stabilizing the nucleus.
Therefore, the ratio of
neutrons to protons is an
important factor.
undefined
Neutron – Proton ratio
 
For smaller nuclei
(
Z 
 20
) stable nuclei
have a neutron-to-
proton ratio close to
1:1
.
undefined
Neutron – Proton ratio
 
As nuclei get 
larger
, it
takes a 
greater
number of 
neutrons
to stabilize the
nucleus.
undefined
Stable Nuclei
 
The shaded region in
the figure shows what
nuclides would be
stable, the so- called
belt of stability
undefined
Stable Nuclei
 
Nuclei 
above
 this belt
have too many
neutrons
.
They tend to decay by
emitting 
beta
particles.
undefined
Stable Nuclei
 
Nuclei 
below
 the belt
have too many
protons
.
They tend to become
more stable by
positron emission or
electron capture.
undefined
Stable Nuclei
 
There are 
no stable 
nuclei with an atomic
number 
greater
 than 
83
.
These nuclei tend to decay by 
alpha
emission.
The largest known completely stable
nucleus is 
lead-208
 which contains a total
of 
208 nucleons 
(
126
 neutrons and 
82
protons).
Types(
Types(
some
some
) of Radiations
) of Radiations
1.
Alpha ray (
particles
):
Are helium nucleus (
4
He
2+
)
Deflects to the right in magnetic(electric) field.
Range 
10cm
.
Can not pass papers, clothes , Al foil sheet, in
water = 0.005 cm
High mass & high ionizing ability.
Nuclides emits an alpha particle its 
atomic number
decrease by 
2
 and 
atomic mass 
decrease by 
4
Its energy = 5Mev.
2.
Beta ray (
particles
):
Are either electrons or positrons.
Range 10m.
N > P 
, 1N 
 1P + electron (Beta -ve ) +antineutrino.
P > N 
, 1P 
 1N + positron (Beta +ve ) + neutrino.
Nuclide emits 
Beta -ve 
particle its atomic number
increase
 by 
1
 and atomic mass remains 
constant
.
Nuclide emits 
Beta +ve 
particle its atomic number
decrease
 by 
1
 and atomic mass remains 
constant
.
Protection
 : ( 
0.8 mm Pb
, 1.5 mm Steel, 5mm
Concrete, 7mm Soil , 16mm wood.)
Its energy between 
K
ev to 
M
ev.
3.
Gamma ray (
Photons
):
Electromagnetic
 ray of very short wavelength,
does not deflect in magnetic/electric field 
 
no
charge no mass
It  penetrates human body completely
Protection
 : ( 
1.8 cm Pb 
,2.8cm steel ,10cm
concrete , 14cm soil ,25cm wood).
The 
X-ray
 has 
less
 energy than the 
gamma
 
ray
.
The 
X-ray
 are 
electrons
 obtained when high
energetic electrons 
are made to 
strike
  a metal.
Gamma ray emission is 
associated
 with 
alpha
 &
beta
 rays emissions.
 
Alpha particles are the least penetrating.
Gamma rays are the most penetrating.
Alpha radiation has a low penetration, but it is
the most damaging to living tissue because it
deposits all its energy along a short path
 
What are ………?
What are ………?
1.
Isotopes (
radioisotopes
),
2.
Isobars,
3.
Isotones
4.
Isomers
3.
Isotopes:
Isotopes:
Atoms of the 
same element 
(same atomic number)
with 
different
 number of 
Neutrons 
(
N
).
Example:  Cupper has two isotopes 
63
Cu
29
 & 
65
Cu
29
having the 
same
 
chemical
 
properties
 , but different
mass & nuclear properties.
4.
Isobars:
Isobars:
Atoms of 
different
 
elements
 having the 
same
 
mass
.
Example: 
3
He
2
 & 
3
H
1
Writing a Balanced Nuclear Equation
Writing a Balanced Nuclear Equation
 
Nuclear equation - used to represent  
nuclear
change
.
The total 
mass
 on each side of the reaction arrow
must be 
identical
.
The 
sum
 of the 
atomic
 
numbers
 on each side of the
reaction arrow must be 
identical
.
238       =     234      +      4
92      =       90      +      2
 
mass number
 
atomic number
Alpha Decay
 
 
Half-Life
Half-Life
The half-life (
) is the 
amount of time necessary
for one-half of the radioactive material to decay
.
Each radioactive isotope has its own half-life
Ranges from a fraction of a second to billion years
The shorter the half-life, the more unstable the isotope
Half-Lives of Selected Radioisotopes
Half-Lives of Selected Radioisotopes
Units of Radiations
Units of Radiations
3.
Units of Absorbed dose:
Units of Absorbed dose:
A.
Rad:
Rad:
It is an energy of 
0.01 joule 
absorbed by 
one Kg 
of
biologic
 
tissue
 from any ionizing radiation regardless  of
the time of exposure.
One Rad 
=0.01 joule.
B.
Gray:
Gray:
One Gray 
(Gy) = 1 joule = 
100 Rads
.
One 
Roentgen
 in air =0.877  Rad =0.0087 Gy.
One 
Roentgen
 for human tissue = 0.96 Rad = 0.0096 Gy
4.
Units of Dose equivalent:
Units of Dose equivalent:
A.
Rem
Rem
:
To measure the Effect of ionizing Radiation in biological
(human) tissue. It 
changes with types 
of radiation.
One Rem = 
one Rad 
X 
SRC
SRC = (
specific radiation constant
/
specific activity constant
)
SRC
 indicates the 
type
 & 
energy
 of radiation.
SRC
 =  one for gamma ,beta & X-ray.
SRC
 = 10 for neutrons & protons radiation.
SRC
 = 20 for Alpha radiation.
B.
Sievert 
Sievert 
(
Sv
) =100 
Rem
.
Quantities & Units of Radiation in routine Use
Quantities & Units of Radiation in routine Use
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The evolution of radiopharmacy as a specialty has progressed rapidly since the 1950s, involving the preparation, dispensing, and clinical investigation of radioactive materials as drugs. Radiopharmacy plays a crucial role in the development and use of radiopharmaceuticals for diagnostic, therapeutic, and research purposes. Diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals are particularly vital as radioactive tracers for imaging and studying the body's biochemistry, physiology, and anatomy. Radiopharmacy involves strict quality control measures to ensure the safe and effective use of radioactive drugs in healthcare.


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  1. Radiopharmaceuticals Fourth year -Semester VIII 2021 Alkhair Adam Khalil, B. Pharm, M. Pharm College of Pharmacy Karary University Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry

  2. Introduction: The evolution of radiopharmacy as a specialty has been extremely rapid when compared to other disciplines within pharmacy. The preparation, dispensing, and clinical investigation of radioactive materials as drugs started experimentally early in the 1950s with the use of 131I and 32P. As the early use of these and other nuclides evolved and as the importance of labeled compounds as imaging agents became recognized, primary development of radiopharmaceuticals lay with the research radiochemist and physician. The proliferation of these radioactive imaging agents required the parallel development of specialists qualified to prepare, run quality control on, run clinical studies on, and dispense these agents. In short, by evolution radiopharmacy and the radiopharmacist emerged as an essential discipline and as a partner to nuclear medicine and the nuclear medicine physician.

  3. Definitions: 1. Radiopharmacy: Is the place where radioactive drugs are prepared and dispensed. The radiopharmacy also serves as a depot for the storage of radioactive materials and nonradioactive supplies. The radiopharmacy is responsible for quality control of the radiopharmaceuticals. The routine preparation procedures often incorporate quality control tests for radiochemical purity.

  4. Definitions: 2. Radiopharmaceuticals: The term is defined as radioactive drug that exhibits spontaneous disintegration of unstable nuclei with the emission of nuclear particles or photons and includes any nonradioactive reagentkit or nuclide generator that is intended to be used in the preparation of any such substance. The term radioactive drug includes radioactive biologic product. Radiopharmaceuticals are usually classified as diagnostic, therapeutic, or research radiopharmaceuticals.

  5. Definitions: 2.1. Diagnostic Radiopharmaceuticals: These are radioactive drugs used for diagnostic purposes as radioactive tracers in patients. These drugs broadcast their positions within the body by their gamma-ray emissions. By monitoring these broadcasts we can infer the concentrations of the tracer material in different organs. Using the signals, we can even obtain low-resolution images of the organs. By monitoring these broadcasts as a function of time, we can study the kinetics and metabolism of the drug within the body. The monitoring device is usually a collimated external gamma-ray detector. Thus, diagnostic radiopharmaceuticals are administered to patients to differentiate normal from abnormal biochemistry, physiology, or anatomy.

  6. Definitions: 2.2. Therapeutic Radiopharmaceuticals: Radioactive substances can be administered to a patient for the purpose of delivering radiation to body tissues internally. The best example of this is the administration of iodide 131I for the purpose of thyroid ablation in patients who are hyperthyroid. The thyroid is internally irradiated by the radioactive iodine that it concentrates. Other radiopharmaceuticals that are used for therapeutic purposes are those administered in the treatment of certain cancers.

  7. Definitions: 2.3. research radiopharmaceuticals (Tracers): Another type of radiopharmaceutical is a regular drug labeled with a small quantity of radioactive substances. They are administered to the patients, not for diagnostic purposes, but to study the metabolism and kinetics (biodistribution) of a drug that may eventually be used in a nonradioactive form. 3. Radiopharmacists: Responsible for the filling and dispensing of prescriptions for radioactive tracers and for the clinical aspects of radiopharmacy. In order to carry out these functions, radiopharmacists need to be trained in: (1) radioactive tracer techniques, (2) safe handling of radioactive materials, and (3) preparation and quality control of drugs prepared for administration to humans.

  8. Definitions: Radiopharmacists are also required to understand the basic principles of nuclear medicine so that they can function efficiently when troubleshooting clinical problems involving performance failure of the radioactive tracer in an individual patient. 4. Nuclear medicine: Nuclear medicine is a specialty devoted to the diagnostic and therapeutic use of radioactive compounds. The spectrum of diagnostic procedures includes (1) static imaging of organs and compartments, (2) sequential or functional imaging of physiologic processes, (3) in vivo tracer studies , and (4) in vitro studies.

  9. Definitions: 5. Nuclear medicine physician: A physician, after fulfilling one of several accepted combinations of training and experience, and completed an approved residency program can become qualified, board-certified nuclear medicine physician. Nuclear medicine is interdisciplinary in nature and relies heavily on interactions with all medical specialties. Input into the development of this field comes from continuing advances in electronics, computer science, physics, analytical chemistry, nuclear chemistry, and radiopharmacy.

  10. Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy The pharmacist deals primarily with therapeutic drugs. A radiopharmacist deals primarily with diagnostic drugs. Both are concerned with drug performance. Both are concerned with drug interactions; one involves changes in the therapeutic process, and the other involves change in bio-distribution that influences the diagnostic process. Most pharmacists compound only a few of the drugs they dispense. A radiopharmacist will probably compound at least 85% of the doses. Most pharmacists rely on the manufacturer to carry out the quality control testing. A radiopharmacist often does quality control testing daily on many products.

  11. Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy Most radiopharmaceuticals are administered intravenously; thus aseptic technique and control of pyrogens is of as much concern to the radiopharmacist as it is to the hospital pharmacist who prepares parenteral injections. A radiopharmacist also is much more involved in troubleshooting activities. When the bio-distribution of a radioactive tracer is other than expected, it becomes the responsibility of the radiopharmacist to determine the cause of the problem. The bio-distribution is usually evident by the quality of the image taken. Thus, bio-distribution is a daily concern of the radiopharmacist.

  12. Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy The radiopharmacist is also a clinical pharmacist. He is concerned with drug interactions and with adverse reactions. He is involved with consulting the physicians on the performance of the tracer and in recommending which tracers can be used in concert with other drugs that have been given to the patient. The radiopharmacist consults mostly with physicians and nuclear medical technologists rather than with patients. Most patient contact will involve only the taking of drug histories and the extraction of other data that can influence the bio-distribution of the tracer

  13. Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy A regular pharmacy is basically a one-way street, accepting prescriptions primarily from patients and dispensing most drugs directly to the patient. Only rarely will radiopharmacists dispense directly to a patient. Usually, the drugs are dispensed to nuclear medicine physicians who intravenously to the patient in the nuclear medicine clinic. The syringes, needles, and other injection devices are radioactive wastes. Usually, these are returned to the radiopharmacy for disposal or storage. Thus, a radiopharmacy is a two-way street. The volume of wastes received may be greater than the volume of materials dispensed. administer the drugs

  14. Pharmacy Vs Radiopharmacy The greatest area of difference between a radiopharmacy and other pharmacies is the control of radioactive materials and the concern for radiation safety. The control of radioactive materials is basically similar to that of other controlled substances, such as narcotics. The practice of radiation safety is basically similar to the control of microbiologic contamination. Aseptic techniques can thus be readily augmented to include radiation safety technique. The regulatory problems of a radiopharmacy are more complex than those of other pharmacies. Essentially, all regulations that apply to pharmacies or pharmacists apply to radiopharmacies and radiopharmacists.

  15. Physics of Radiation and Radioactivity

  16. Basic Physics of Radiation The Atom. The nucleus. Components of the Nucleus. Energy content of the Nucleus. Types of Radiations ( alpha , beta, gamma , X-ray). Origin/characteristics. Isotopes & Radioisotopes , Nuclides & Radionuclides. Nuclear equation/Chemical equation. Units of Radiation.

  17. The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons (two types of baryons) bound by the nuclear force (also known as the residual strong force). These baryons are further composed of subatomic fundamental particles known as quarks bound by the strong interaction. So, what are baryon and quark ????

  18. Quarks A quark is an elementary particle and a fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. There are six types (flavors) of quarks, known as : up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top.

  19. Standard Model of Elementary Particles Fermions

  20. Composite particles Hadrons: are defined as strongly interacting composite particles. Hadrons are either: 1. Fermions, they are called baryons. 2. Mesons. A. Baryons:Ordinary baryons (fermions) contain three quarks or three antiquarks. example: Nucleons are the fermionic constituents of normal atomic nuclei: Protons, composed of two up and one down quark (uud) Neutrons, composed of two down and one up quark (ddu) B. Mesons: are made up of a quark and an antiquark. They are not themselves elementary particles, they mediate the residual strong force between nucleons.

  21. Quark structure of Nucleons (Baryons) Proton uud Neutron ddu

  22. Radioactivity

  23. Basic atomic particulates (natural):- 1. light: electron, neutrino (no charge), meons 2. Mesons: (in nucleus) 3. Heavy: protons , neutrons. (in nucleus) Neutron (mass) is more than proton + electron. Free neutron decays in 15 mins neutron proton + electron + anti neutrino Proton is the least in mass in its group (others are artificial), thus stable (10years).

  24. Nuclide/Nuclear symbol Mass number number of protons and neutrons=A 11 5 B atomic symbol=X Atomic number number of protons=Z

  25. Decay of Radionuclides Spontaneous Fission: Fission in heavy nuclei can occur spontaneously or by bombardment with energetic particles. Alpha ( )Decay. Beta (B-) Decay. Positron (or B+) Decay. Electron Capture (EC) . Isomeric Transition (IT).

  26. Some nuclides are unstable and they split up to form smaller elements. The nucleus splits and protons and neutrons form new nuclei. The electrons divide themselves between the two. Sometimes energy is produced from this reaction. This energy is called the nuclear energy (Residual strong force). Particles such as protons, neutrons and electrons fly out while the original nucleus divides. This process is called radioactive decay and the element is said to be radioactive. The particles and energy are called radioactivity.

  27. Neutron Proton ratio Because protons repel each other the nucleus needs a certain proton to neutron ratio for stability. Neutrons play a key role stabilizing the nucleus. Therefore, the ratio of neutrons to protons is an important factor.

  28. Neutron Proton ratio For smaller nuclei (Z 20) stable nuclei have a neutron-to- proton ratio close to 1:1.

  29. Neutron Proton ratio As nuclei get larger, it takes a greater number of neutrons to stabilize the nucleus.

  30. Stable Nuclei The shaded region in the figure shows what nuclides would be stable, the so- called belt of stability

  31. Stable Nuclei Nuclei above this belt have too many neutrons. They tend to decay by emitting beta particles.

  32. Stable Nuclei Nuclei below the belt have too many protons. They tend to become more stable by positron emission or electron capture.

  33. Stable Nuclei There are no stable nuclei with an atomic number greater than 83. These nuclei tend to decay by alpha emission. The largest known completely stable nucleus is lead-208 which contains a total of 208 nucleons (126 neutrons and 82 protons).

  34. Types(some) of Radiations 1. Alpha ray (particles): Are helium nucleus (4He2+) Deflects to the right in magnetic(electric) field. Range 10cm. Can not pass papers, clothes , Al foil sheet, in water = 0.005 cm High mass & high ionizing ability. Nuclides emits an alpha particle its atomic number decrease by 2 and atomic mass decrease by 4 Its energy = 5Mev.

  35. 2. Beta ray (particles): Are either electrons or positrons. Range 10m. N > P , 1N 1P + electron (Beta -ve ) +antineutrino. P > N , 1P 1N + positron (Beta +ve ) + neutrino. Nuclide emits Beta -ve particle its atomic number increase by 1 and atomic mass remains constant. Nuclide emits Beta +ve particle its atomic number decrease by 1 and atomic mass remains constant. Protection : ( 0.8 mm Pb, 1.5 mm Steel, 5mm Concrete, 7mm Soil , 16mm wood.) Its energy between Kev to Mev.

  36. 3. Gamma ray (Photons): Electromagnetic ray of very short wavelength, does not deflect in magnetic/electric field no charge no mass It penetrates human body completely Protection : ( 1.8 cm Pb ,2.8cm steel ,10cm concrete , 14cm soil ,25cm wood). The X-ray has less energy than the gamma ray. The X-ray are electrons obtained when high energetic electrons are made to strike a metal. Gamma ray emission is associated with alpha & beta rays emissions.

  37. Alpha particles are the least penetrating. Gamma rays are the most penetrating. Alpha radiation has a low penetration, but it is the most damaging to living tissue because it deposits all its energy along a short path

  38. particle Alpha a Beta b Gamma g 4amu 0 0 Mass Charge Effect +2 -1 0 Radioisotope loses two protons and two neutrons The ELEMENT changes Radioisotope converts a neutron to a proton & ejects an electron The ELEMENT changes Radioisotope loses energy The element does not change Helium nucleus High energy electromagnetic radiation electron What it is Paper/skin 1cm/metal foil Lead/concrete Stop it Medium ionization Lowest ionization High ionization damage

  39. What are ? 1. Isotopes (radioisotopes), 2. Isobars, 3. Isotones 4. Isomers

  40. 1. Isotones: Atoms of different elements with the same number of Neutrons(N). Example: 131I53 & 132Xe54 (both have 78 neutrons) 2. Isomers: Atoms with the same Z & A & N , but of which the nuclei exist in different excited states longer than 10 9 seconds. Meta-stable nucleus (m): Remains in excited state for seconds , minutes or hours. Example: 99mTc 99Tc (within 6 hours)

  41. 3. Isotopes: Atoms of the same element (same atomic number) with different number of Neutrons (N). Example: Cupper has two isotopes 63Cu29 & 65Cu29 having the same chemical properties , but different mass & nuclear properties. 4. Isobars: Atoms of different elements having the same mass. Example: 3He2 & 3H1

  42. Writing a Balanced Nuclear Equation Nuclear equation - used to represent nuclear change. The total mass on each side of the reaction arrow must be identical. The sum of the atomic numbers on each side of the reaction arrow must be identical.

  43. Alpha Decay + 238 92 234 4 2 U Th 90 He 238 = 234 + 4 mass number 92 = 90 + 2 atomic number

  44. Half-Life The half-life (T ) is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the radioactive material to decay. Each radioactive isotope has its own half-life Ranges from a fraction of a second to billion years The shorter the half-life, the more unstable the isotope

  45. Half-Lives of Selected Radioisotopes Radioisotope Carbon-14 Cobalt-60 Hydrogen-3 Iodine-131 Iron-59 Molybdenum-99 Sodium-24 Strontium-90 Technetium-99m Uranium-235 Symbol Half-life 14C6 60Co27 3H1 131I53 59Fe26 99Mo42 24Na11 90Sr38 99mTc43 235U92 5730 y 5.3 y 12.3 y 8.1 d 45 d 67 h 15 h 28 y 6 h 710 million y

  46. Units of Radiations 1. Units of Activity: A. Curie A unit to measure Radioactivity & is defined as the number of disintegrations in one second for a one gram of pure radium (226Ra) & it equals 3.7 X???? disintegrations/sec. B. Becquerel = one disintegration/second

  47. 2. Units of Exposure Roentgen: Quantity of radiation( gamma & X-ray) that causes ionization of one cubic cm of dry air at zero temperature degree & 76 cm Hg atmospheric pressure. It equals absorbed energy of 87.7 erg for every gram of dry air , which produces energy of 2.58 X 10 4 Coulomb in every kg of air.

  48. 3. Units of Absorbed dose: A. Rad: It is an energy of 0.01 joule absorbed by one Kg of biologic tissue from any ionizing radiation regardless of the time of exposure. One Rad =0.01 joule. B. Gray: One Gray (Gy) = 1 joule = 100 Rads. One Roentgen in air =0.877 Rad =0.0087 Gy. One Roentgen for human tissue = 0.96 Rad = 0.0096 Gy

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