Communication in Instructional Technology

Instructional Technology

TECS 3095

Activity

1.What do you mean by communication? Could you define it

    in your own words?

2. How do you relate it with instruction?

Communication can be defined as a transmissions

of information from one place to another; that is the

capacity of an individual to pass his/her feeling,

ideas, to another; the capacity of groups,

organizations, materials, etc. to convey effectively

information to where it is required.

                                                 Cont..

•

There are many definitions of communication as there

are experts in the field. Different scholars attempt to

define the concept in different ways based on their

own understanding, philosophy, etc. Thus, we can

find different definitions for the term communication.

•

For example, Communication, as 

Charles

Cooley/sociologist/

refers to the mechanism through

which human relation exists and develops all the

symbols of the mind, together with the means of

conveying them through space and preserving in

time.

                                               Cont…

Based on the above definitions, it is possible to infer the

following points about communication

•

Communication makes social life possible     because it

realizes sharing of interest

•

Social organizations including schools and classrooms

cannot exist without  communication because they

involve information transmission.

•

When communication among individuals and

organizations fails, their capacity to know, understand

and own skills will also fail.

                                                    Cont…

•

Instruction and communication are inseparable.

Without communication there will be no instruction.

Teachers at any educational level are responsible to

have good communication skills in order to help their

learners achieve what is intended. Teacher’s subject

knowledge can be successfully shared with their

students when teachers are able to communicate

effectively.

1.2. The communication process

1.2.1 Components of Communication

What are the major components in the communication

process?

___________________________________________

It is said that communication is the process of

exchange or sharing of information, ideas, feelings,

thoughts, etc. Therefore, for communication to

happen, there are different components which must

operate together. Hence, communication as a process

involves five basic components.

They are:

 A. source

The source of communication is the sender who has

a message to impart. The sender has to decide how

to communicate a message, which channel is to be

selected for the message and what type of strategies

should be planned so that the message makes the

desired response.

The source could be a person,

group of people, or an institution. In the process of

the instruction, the source could be a student, group

of students, a teacher or group of teachers.

Factors that Influence Operation of the Source

The common ones are the following.

•

Communication skills:

 the ability of the source to think, write, draw

or speak can impede its operation.

•

Attitude of the source:

 the attitude of the sender/source towards

his/her audience, the subject matter he/she is communicating or

him/her.

•

 Knowledge

of the subject

: his/her audience, language, media and

resources used for communication, and social acceptance of the subject.

•

The social situation

in which he/she operates

:  The role of the

source in society, the group he/she belongs to, the social background

and age etc.

•

Availability of resources:

•

knowledge of these factors can help us to examine ourselves as

sources and to evaluate communication that we receive in light of what

we know about the source

.

B. Message

•

Message is the other component of

communication. It refers to the content, idea,

or feeling produced and sent by the source to

the receiver.

To make the message effective,

the sender has to understand the nature and

profile of the receiver of the message, his/her

needs and expectations and possible response

to the message.

                                               Cont…

The source needs to consider mainly the following factors during

communication.

•

Code:

 the code has to be chosen for the message. This can be

expressed in terms of a given language and the level of difficulty

of the code for the audience.

•

Content:

 the content of the message has to be selected and

properly organized. In this case, the ideas to be presented have to

be selected, tested and organized.

The message is prepared and channeled by the source.

Considering the receiver in mind in coding, structuring and

treating the message is indispensable in the process of

communication

•

Channel is the medium used to communicate a

message from the sender to receiver. The channel

could be spoken word, printed word, electronic

media, or even non-verbal cues such as signs,

gestures, body language, facial expressions, etc. The

selection of an appropriate channel is crucial for the

success of communication.

C. Channel (Medium)

D. The receiver (Audience)



This refers to a person or persons expected

to take the message and as a result show a

behavioral change. The factors that affect the

operation of the source could also affect the

operation of the receiver.

E.

Feedback

:-

is a key component in the

communication process because it allows the

sender to evaluate the effectiveness of the

message.

S

ome of the importance of feedback in

communication include:-

1. It completes the whole process of

communication and makes it continuous.

2. It sustains communication process

3. It is a basis for measuring the effectiveness

of communication

4. It is a good basis for planning on what

next to be done especially statistical report.

5. Communication will be useless without

feedback

6. Feedback paves way for generating new

idea.

                Noise

N

oise is interference with the decoding of messages sent

over a channel by an encoder. 

Noise can occur during any

stage of the 

communication 

process. 

The major noises

are:-

a.

Physiological-Impairment Noise:

Physical maladies prevent effective communication. For

instance, actual deafness or blindness.

2.

 Semantic Noise:

Different interpretations of the meaning of certain words

affect communication.

3.

 Syntactical Noise:

The quality of language clearly affects communication.

4.

 Organizational Noise:

Poorly structured communication can prevent the receiver

from accurate interpretation.

5.

 Cultural Noise:

Stereotypical assumptions can cause misunderstandings.

6.

 Psychological Noise:

Certain attitudes can also make communication difficult.

For instance, great anger or sadness.

    1.3 Procedures for Effective Communication

Communication is a complicated process. There is no

clear criterion for effective communication. Some are:-

1. 

Know your goals

State your goals /objectives clearly.

2. Understand your audience

•

What is my audience

’

s background, experience?

•

What is their attitude?

•

What factors affect their learning?

3

.

U

n

d

e

r

s

t

a

n

d

t

h

e

i

d

e

a

s

y

o

u

a

r

e

c

o

m

m

u

n

i

c

a

t

i

n

g

•

Good knowledge of the subject matter.

4

.

O

r

g

a

n

i

z

e

i

d

e

a

s

a

s

e

f

f

e

c

t

i

v

e

l

y

a

s

p

o

s

s

i

b

l

e

•

The ideas should be broken down in to meaningful

logical units

5

.

C

h

o

o

s

e

a

p

p

r

o

p

r

i

a

t

e

m

e

d

i

a

t

o

t

h

e

a

u

d

i

e

n

c

e

6

.

P

r

e

s

e

n

t

m

a

t

e

r

i

a

l

s

t

o

g

a

i

n

t

h

e

a

t

t

e

n

t

i

o

n

o

f

a

u

d

i

e

n

c

e

7. Evaluate each steps of the process

1.4. Models of communication

What is a Model?

In the broadest sense, a model is a

systematic representation of an object

or event in idealized and abstract form.

Models are strategies for guiding

students and teachers through

complicated processes by pointing out

key elements of communication.

T

here is no single model that different

scholars agreed upon. As a result, we

will focus on some common models of

communication.

1.4.1 The Shannon and Weaver

’

s Model

The Shannon-weaver Mathematical  model,

1949

This model is called the 

“

mathematical theory of

communication

”

 or 

“

Information theory

”

 typically

represents the one-way flow process. 

This model

was criticized by many scholars for its linear

nature. In this model the sender and the receiver

have separate roles, i.e., the sender encodes the

message and the receiver decodes the message.

1.4.2. Schramm

’

s Adaptation of the Shannon

model

Wilbur Schramm (1954) was one of the first to

alter the mathematical model of Shannon and

weaver. He conceived of decoding and encoding

as activities maintained simultaneously by

sender and receiver. He also made provisions

for two-way interchange of message. 

The roles

of encoder and decoder are interchangeable.

Thus, each person in the communication

process is encoder and decoder.

Diagrammatically, Schramm

’

s model looks like as

follows.

                ____________________Field of experience_____________________

Feedback

This model is called two way

communication or interaction model.

Strengths

•

Schramm provided the additional notion of a

“

field of experience,

”

 or the psychological frame

of reference; this refers to the type of orientation

or attitude

which interactants maintain toward

each other.

•

Included Feedback and considered

communication as reciprocal, two-way.

According to this

model, communication is an

interpretive transaction among individuals.

The sender of the message encodes it according

to his/her skill and knowledge/field of

experience/ and the receiver decode it according

to his/her field of experience. In the feedback

process the receiver does more than decode the

message.

 1.5 Instructional Communication

Communication and instruction are inseparable.

Without clear and effective communication,

students

’

 learning is unthinkable. Wrench,

etal

.

(2009), state that 

teaching is about

establishing effective and affective

communication relationships

with students.

They further confirm that effective teachers are

effective communicators

.

To make effective communication in the

classroom, their subject knowledge and skill of

methodology has a critical role. Teachers need to

prepare their instruction carefully and

implement it accordingly. As we obviously know,

today classroom communication should be two

way. Teachers and students interact actively.

T

e

a

c

h

e

r

/

s

e

n

d

e

r

S

u

b

j

e

c

t

m

a

t

t

e

r

/

m

e

s

s

a

g

e

/

M

e

d

i

a

/

c

h

a

n

n

e

l

N

o

i

s

e

:

L

e

a

r

n

i

n

g

e

n

v

’

t

,

S

t

u

d

e

n

t

s

l

e

v

e

l

o

f

m

o

t

i

v

a

t

i

o

n

C

o

m

p

r

e

h

e

n

s

i

o

n

o

f

s

u

b

j

e

c

t

m

a

t

t

e

r

Students   change in

behavior

F

e

e

d

b

a

c

k

T

he classroom communication model is presented as follows

Students

Effective instructional communication

is assumed to have the need for:

1.

 common understanding between

the teacher and students

2.

sharing of interest

3.

avoiding the atmosphere of

authoritarianism

4.

participation as equals

In general, effective teaching and

communication are synonyms for

effective teachers are clear

communicators.

1.6 Functions of Communication

What are the functions of communication?

Some of the functions of communication are as

follows.

•

Information:-helps in collecting, storage and

dissemination of information

•

Socialization: communication helps individuals

become active members of the society to which

they belong.

•

Motivation: it fosters the individual and

community activities and motivates people to

meet goals.

•

Education: communication and education are

two sides of a coin.

•

Entertainment: people find enjoyment and

entertainment

1.7 Means of Communication

There are various tools and media

which serve as a means of

communication among human beings.

Some of the prominent means of

communication are the following.

•

Sign and sound

•

Language

•

Postal System

•

Telephone

•

Mass media

•

Computers, internet etc.

1.8 Barriers to Verbal Classroom

Communication

Various factors can affect

communication in

the classroom

 such as

•

Inaudibility of speech

•

Abnormal speed of speech

•

Unfamiliar pronunciation of the teacher

•

Use of unfamiliar words and technical terms.

without explanation

•

Lack of understanding nature of students

•

Daydreams and inattentiveness.

•

Unsystematic

presentation

•

Lack of immediate feedback

•

Lack of physical facilities

•

Social, economic and cultural differences

among the students.

Chapter Two

Basic Concepts of Instructional Media



The history of utilization of instructional media to

communicate information may trace back to the

Stone Age. The use of instructional media started

somewhere from the Stone Age period (World

Encyclopedia, 2001). Today’s approaches of

utilizing modern instructional media and

technologies are the results of this long history.

This shows that instructional media are important

to facilitate communication not only in the formal

instructional process but also in our everyday

lives.

Cont…

Activity

1

.

What is Instruction?

2.How about instructional media/materials?

The term 

instruction

 is a deliberate arrangement of experiences

within the learning space, classroom, laboratory, workshop etc

Media

 according to Vikoo (2008) is used to think about

Television, Satellite Communication, Computer and other

sophisticated modern technologies.

Instructional media

 are important elements of teaching and

learning activities. This is why teachers globally at any level use

instructional media for teaching their students.

Benefits of Using Instructional Media

The benefits of instructional media include:

•

The Delivery of Learning Materials can be Standardized

•

The Learning Process becomes More Clear And

Interesting

•

The Learning Process becomes More Interactive

•

Efficiency in Time and Labor

•

Improving The Quality Of Student Learning Outcomes

•

Foster Positive Attitudes Toward Students And Learning

Materials

O

t

h

e

r

b

e

n

e

f

i

t

s

o

f

u

s

i

n

g

i

n

s

t

r

u

c

t

i

o

n

a

l

m

e

d

i

a

a

r

e

:

•

increases the rate of learning by the learners,

•

makes learning to be real and permanent,

•

saves teacher

’

s time

•

promote learners participation

•

makes learning available to wider audience and;

•

helps teacher and learner overcome physical difficulties

Classification of Instructional Media



Vikoo(2003) believed that the classification

should be based on some criteria. Such criteria he

noted include:

•

Degree of expertise/technical skills required for the

production.

•

Nature of the material (Media)

•

 Physiological parameter or sensory modality

required

•

Whether or not projection is involved

•

Place produced

•

Miscellaneous characteristic

Classifying Instructional Media Based on

Convenience

Durable and Non-Durable Media



Durable

materials

 are those that last for very

long time. Eg. Computer, Projectors, Television,

Radio, Cameras etc.



Non-Durable media

 that have short life span.

•

Audio-Visual Media:

 Media under this

classification appeal to the sense of hearing and

seeing. Eg.video, television, computer motion

pictures etc.

Cont…

Print and Non-Print Media

:

•

Print media

 include books, newspapers, journals

etc

•

Non-Print Media

 are maps, charts, postal, graphs

etc.

Projected and Non-Projected Media

:

•

The projected materials

 require other equipments

especially projectors to function.

•

The non-projected media

 are those that do not

require any other equipment to function. Materials

like poster, flash cards, charts, pictures etc fall under

this category.

Chapter Three

Selection and Utilization of Instructional Media

The basic steps are outlined below (St. Cloud State

University, 1997):

•

Review instructional goals, objectives

•

Determine the best medium for your lesson components

•

Search for and review existing media/materials

•

Adapt existing media/materials

•

If new media/materials need to be developed, determine

format, script

•

Check for clarity and flow of ideas

•

Conduct formative evaluation

•

Implement/apply

•

Evaluate/revise

Major criteria for selecting instructional media

•

Practicality

: This criterion indicates whether the

intended media is practical or not.

•

Student Appropriateness:

 It tells us whether the

intended media appropriate for the developmental and

experiential levels of the students.

Instructional Appropriateness:

 This criteria requires

checking whether the intended media is appropriate for

the planned instructional strategy.

Utilization of Instructional Media

Procedures in the Utilization of Instructional

Materials.



Media utilization follows the following

procedures:



Preview the materials



Practice the presentation



Prepare the environment



Prepare the audience, and



 Present the materials

1.

 Principles in the Use of Instructional

Material

•

Principle of Selection

: Instructional materials

prove effective only when they suit the teaching

objective and unique characteristics of learners.

•

They should suit the age level, grade level etc

•

They should have specific educational value

besides being interesting and motivating;

•

They should be the true representative of the real

things;

•

Principle of Preparation

•

The teacher should receive some training in the

preparation of aids;

•

Principle of Utilization

•

The utilization of instructional materials should

be in line with the objectives of the lesson provided

•

It should be effectively and efficiently utilized with

minimum wastage.

1.

Specific Characteristics of Particular

Instructional Media

A. Black board/Chalkboard

The reasons to use the chalk board could be:

•

Speed:

 We write on the board at about the same

speed.

•

Organization

:

 You can outline the day

’

s agenda

or summarize main points

•

Visuals: 

The board lends itself well to working on

formulas, solving problems,

•

Interaction:

 helpful in generating interaction.

Tips for Using Chalkboards

•

Always face the classroom when you use the

board

even when you write

•

Write clearly and legibly

•

Give your students time to take notes

•

Plan how to use the board

 and structure your

work

B. Printed Materials

As mentioned by Seth (2009),

printed materials are the literary

forms of information preserved

in autograph or transmitted

format. They include exercise

books, study guides, handouts

and other print materials. They

are important because they

provide common visual imagery

for both instructors and

students.

C. Graphics/Charts

These are probably much more

available and used and could be easily

made by teachers. 

T

hings to consider

in using charts include-

a) The chart should be simple,

accurate and attractive.

b) Consider whether the chart is

needed and would do better than other

resources.

c) The type of data and the number of

learners to benefit from the charts

should be considered

 .

There are 4 major types of

graphs.

1.

 Bar graphs

2.

  Pictorial graphs

3.

  Curve graphs

4.

  Circle (Pie) graphs

•

MAP

A map is an accurate

representation of plain

surface in the form of a

diagram drawn to

scale, the details of

boundaries of

continents, countries

etc.

Effective use of maps requires:understanding

•

 key or index

•

the lines-boundary lines, lines of communication

•

 the colors, tints, shadows, symbols in a map

•

the position of earth in the universe

Types of maps

•

Relief maps

 (regional and the world)

•

Historical maps:

 maps in history reveal the

changing times and the growth and decline of

various kingdoms.

•

Distribution maps

 Eg.

•

Vegetation maps

•

Population maps

•

Geographical

maps

 contour maps, weather maps

seismological study

Power Point and Other Forms of Computer

Projection

PowerPoint, along with other forms of

computer projections has quickly become the

standard for classroom lecture presentation.

There are many benefits:

•

Visual information:

 with Power point, you

can now greatly expand the visual content of

lectures along the usual written information;

•

Clarity

: all lectures can be prepared before

class with attention of detail to areas more

problematic;

•

Location

:  you are more free to face the class

•

Efficiency:

 lectures can be revised after a class for

later use.

Difficulties of Media Use

 These include :

a) Bureaucracy and delay at the

Ministry of Education

b) Not many teachers see the need for

media use in the classroom.

c) Lack of adequate personnel to train

teachers.

d) Lack of enough support from heads

and supervisors of education

e) The impression that new technology

would replace teachers

f) Lack of flexible curricula

g) Inadequate time and laziness on the

part of teachers

 etc

Chapter Four

Learning Modality, Memory and

Instructional Media

1.

Students Learning Styles and

Instructional Media

Everybody learns different things in different

ways. How one learns depends on what is to be

learned. We learn how to ride a bicycle by doing

(kinesthetic learning); make bread by kneading

dough with the hands (tactile learning); to sing,

play a musical instrument, or appreciate music

by listening (auditory learning); and, learn about

the movement of the stars and planets by

observing (visual learning).

A good teacher seeks as many ways as

possible to present information and ideas

to students and to stimulate their

thinking. Similarly, good teaching

practice includes providing opportunities

for students to be active learners, taking

into account individual differences in

learning modalities/styles and providing

encouragement for students to seek

solutions independently. Using varieties

of instructional media can be one strategy

to respond to this diversity effectively.

students vary according to their learning

preference and learning styles.

4.1.1 Learning through Direct Experience

Commenting on the importance of learning

through real objects and situations

stressed

the benefits of learning through their senses

to make the subject of discussion more

effective than in the absence of it. The

implication is that pupils will remember what

they see better than what they hear only and

that more and better learning results from

experiences gained through as many of the

senses as possible.

4.1.2 Instructional Media and Memory

I

nstructional media help to facilitate the

learning of abstract concepts and ideas; to

save teachers

’

 energy of talking too much; to

broaden students

’

 knowledge; to increase

their level of understanding to stimulate and

motivate learners; and to meet individual

differences.

Instructional media enable learners to retain

more and forget less of what is retained.

They help to make learning relatively long

lasting.

T

here are research data that support these

advantages of using instructional media in

instructional process. One of such evidences

is the fact given on how human beings make

use of their senses

Edgar Dale’s Cone of experience clearly

shows this reality. The Cone of experience

shows the progression of learning

experiences from concrete to abstract

.

Dale grouped the Cone

’

s categories

into three based on the level of

experience, concreteness or

abstractness. These are termed as

Enactive, Iconic, and Symbolic

experiences. 

Each category is

discussed as follows

.

•

Enactive 

–

 direct experiences

These are those media that are at the

bottom of the cone and provide most

concrete experience. This involves:

I. Direct and Purposeful Experiences

•

Direct, firsthand experiences

•

Have direct participation in the

outcome

•

Use of all our senses

•

Examples:



Working in a homeless shelter



Tutoring younger children

. Contrived Experiences

•

Models and mock-ups

•

“

editing of reality

”

•

Necessary when real experience

cannot be used or are too

complicated

•

Examples



Use of a pilot simulator



Mock up of an auto plant to show

the auto making process

•

Dramatized Experiences

•

Reconstructed experiences

•

Can be used to simplify an event or idea to

its most important parts

•

Divided into two categories



Acting 

–

 actual participation (more

concrete)



Observing 

–

 watching a dramatization

take place (more abstract)

2. Iconic Experiences on the Cone

•

Progressively moving toward greater use of

imagination

•

Successful use in a classroom depends on

how much imaginative involvement the

method can illicit from students.

This category Involves:

•

Demonstrations

•

Study trips

•

Exhibits

•

Motion pictures

•

Educational television

•

Radio, recordings, and still pictures

•

Demonstrations

•

Visualized explanation of an important fact, idea,

or process

•

Shows how certain things are done

•

Examples:

•

How to make bread

•

How to play the piano

•

How to lift a fingerprint

•

Study Trips

•

Watch people do things in real situations

•

Observe an event that is unavailable in the

classroom

•

Examples:



 A  trip to Lalibela

3. Exhibits

•

Something seen by a spectator

•

Two types



Ready made

    e.g Museum



Home-made

   Eg. Classroom project

. Television

•

Bring immediate interaction with events from

around the world

•

Edit an event to create clearer understanding

than if experienced actual event /first hand

5. Motion Pictures

•

Can omit unnecessary or unimportant

material

•

Used to slow down a fast process

•

Viewing, seeing and hearing experience

•

Can re-create events with simplistic drama

that even slower students can grasp

Example: video

6. 

Recordings, radio and still pictures

•

Can often be understood by those who cannot read

•

Helpful to students who cannot deal with the motion

or pace of a real event or television

•

Examples:



Listening to radio broadcasts



Listening to music

•

Symbolic Experiences

•

Very little immediate physical action

•

They are more abstract

•

Difficult only if one doesn

’

t have enough direct

experience to support the symbol

•

Used at all levels of the Cone in varying importance

•

Involves:



Visual symbols



Verbal symbols

Visual Symbols

•

No longer involves reproducing real situations

•

Chalkboard and overhead projector are the most

widely used media for this purpose.

•

Help students see an idea, event, or process

Examples:



Chalkboard



Flat maps



Diagrams



Charts

Verbal Symbols

•

Two types



Written words



Spoken words

•

Examples:



Discussion, 

Explanation/lecture

From the Cone of Learning it is clear that as

we go from the bottom of the cone up to the

apex/top/ the learning experience becomes

abstract.

Similarly it is said that an average person

learns

•

1% through the sense of Taste

•

1.5% through the sense of Touch

•

3.5% through the sense of Smell

•

11% through the sense of Hearing

•

83% through the sense of Sight

From this we observe that 94% of what we

learn comes through visual and aural senses.

      Summary

Students learn meaningfully and easily

when teachers supplement their

instruction by appropriate instructional

media. Instructional media are not

substitute for the teacher but they are

aid for the teacher and students.

As learners do have different learning

styles, they will not be benefited equally

from the same media. It is the

responsibility of the teacher to select the

instructional media that fit to the

learning styles of students.

THANK YOU VERY MUCH

FOR YOUR ATTENTION!!!