Aggressive Behavior: Nature vs. Nurture Debate
Dr. Chris Dwyer
Dr. Chris Dwyer
School of Psychology
School of Psychology
National University of Ireland, Galway
National University of Ireland, Galway
christopher.dwyer.phd@gmail.com
christopher.dwyer.phd@gmail.com
Writing
Writing
What is an Essay?
What is an Essay?
An essay refers to a piece of prose-based
writing that presents an argument.
An argument is the presentation of a
claim or some point of view, along with
reasons and/or objections that either
support or refute the claim.
Consists of at least 12-15 points.
All arguments share the characteristics of being
All arguments share the characteristics of being
composed of a network of propositions, prose-based or
composed of a network of propositions, prose-based or
otherwise, that are structured via logical, inferential
otherwise, that are structured via logical, inferential
relationships:
relationships:
A central claim
A central claim
Reasons for why the central claim is true
Reasons for why the central claim is true
Objections to the central claim
Objections to the central claim
Rebuttals that object to objections
Rebuttals that object to objections
Remember, an Essay is an argument!
Remember, an Essay is an argument!
Aggression is a serious problem in society. It is commonplace to hear of events involving violence, verbal abuse and other forms
of aggression. Many factors influence aggressive behaviour. For years, psychologists have sought to understand whether an
individual’s behaviour emerges as a result of nature (i.e. their biology) or nurture (i.e. their environment). Aggressive behaviour
falls into this argument. Is aggressive behaviour a by product of nature or nurture?
Ethologists have shown that aggression in members of a species can aid survival of that species. They have shown, for
example, that intra-specific aggression has several biological advantages. When accompanied by rivalry among males for
mating opportunities, intraspecific aggression tends to perpetuate the genes of the healthier, more vigorous animals. Freud
theorised that thanatos (the death instinct) and libido (the sexual drive) help to form personality by virtue of the way sexuality
and aggression were channelled. However, Freud’s ideas are merely theoretical and little scientific findings support these ideas.
This is because psychoanalytic ideas (e.g. the death instinct) cannot be adequately tested or falsified in an empirical fashion.
One piece of evidence to suggest that biology causes aggression is the fact that testosterone is correlated with
aggression. For example, there is evidence that high levels of testosterone are correlated with aggression, as are depleted
levels of serotonin. Men have higher levels of testosterone and are generally more aggressive than women (Knight et al., 1996).
The role testosterone plays in aggression was exemplified when Dabbs et al. (1988) found that female prison inmates who
displayed unprovoked violence and who had received several other convictions also showed high levels of testosterone.
Genetic factors play a major role in aggression (e.g. in the breed of dogs). Inbreeding can create unstable
temperaments, and hormones can contribute to aggressive tendencies in intact male dogs. However, an individual’s
environment can affect his or her testosterone level. For example, increases in testosterone have been found in Brazilian
supporters who saw their team win the 1994 World Cup on television (Fielden et al., 1994).
On the nurture side of things, various environmental factors may also influence aggression. For example, when parents
habitually resort to aggression, their children are likely to do the same. In extreme cases of child abuse, parents who beat their
children usually turn out to have been victims of child abuse themselves (Parke & Collmer, 1975). This can also be seen in work
done by Bandura (1977) found that, after watching an adult interact with a ‘Bobo Doll’, children tended to imitate the observed
behaviour. For example, if the adult beat the doll with a stick, children often did the same.
Longitudinal studies tracing development from childhood to adolescence have found that long- term viewing of violence on
television is associated with an increase in boys’ violent behaviour as adults (Lefkowitz et al., 1977). However, Feshbach &
Singer (1971) found that being subjected to consistent violent television programmes, over six months, as a teenager, didn’t
increase levels of aggression and found that in some cases individuals were less aggressive.
Displacement of responsibility is an important factor in aggressive behaviour. When people feel less responsibility for
their behaviour (e.g., in mob situations), they are more likely to act aggressively. Aggression tends to increase in groups, which
is a result of group polarization. Group attitudes often polarize (i.e., become more extreme) when individuals with similar
attitudes get together. One outcome is extreme aggression.
Dollard et al. (1939) proposed that aggressive behaviour results from frustration in attempts to achieve personal goals.
Dollard said that ‘aggression is always a consequence of frustration’ and ‘frustration always leads to some form of aggression’.
However, experimental evidence for the frustration-aggression theory is mixed. According to Berkowitz (1962), frustration yields
anger and anger only leads to aggression when a person is exposed to an aggressive cue, e.g. a gun.
In conclusion, one acknowledges that aggression is a serious problem in society. It is commonplace to hear of events
involving violence, verbal abuse and other forms of aggression. There are many influences on aggressive behaviour, such as
various biological and environmental factors. For years, psychologists have argued about whether or not human behaviour is
the result of nature or nurture. Aggressive behaviour falls into this argument. There is no 'clear-cut' answer here, as both
environmental and biological factors influence aggression.
An argument map is a visual representation of that logically
An argument map is a visual representation of that logically
structured network of reasoning, in which the argument is
structured network of reasoning, in which the argument is
made unambiguous and explicit.
made unambiguous and explicit.
That is, there is no need for attention switching from
That is, there is no need for attention switching from
paragraph to paragraph or from page to page in search of
paragraph to paragraph or from page to page in search of
reasons and objections to the central claim around which
reasons and objections to the central claim around which
the argument map is constructed.
the argument map is constructed.
Argument maps use a ‘box and arrow’ design in which the boxes
Argument maps use a ‘box and arrow’ design in which the boxes
represent propositions (i.e. the central claim, reasons, objections
represent propositions (i.e. the central claim, reasons, objections
and rebuttals) and the ‘arrows’ among propositions indicate the
and rebuttals) and the ‘arrows’ among propositions indicate the
inferential relationships linking the propositions together.
inferential relationships linking the propositions together.
Thus, the provision of an arrow between two propositions
Thus, the provision of an arrow between two propositions
indicates that one is evidence for or against another.
indicates that one is evidence for or against another.
Why would Argument Maps be able to
facilitate improved learning?
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All theses and essays consist of 3 parts:
All theses and essays consist of 3 parts:
1.
Introduction
Introduction
2.
Body
Body
3.
Conclusion
Conclusion
Tell them what you’re
Tell them what you’re
going to tell them.
going to tell them.
Tell them.
Tell them.
Tell them again.
Tell them again.
“If you don’t start with a quote, start with
“If you don’t start with a quote, start with
something quotable.”
something quotable.”
1.
Thesis Statement or Central Claim
Thesis Statement or Central Claim
What is this piece trying to argue?
What is this piece trying to argue?
2.
So what? What’s your point?
So what? What’s your point?
Why is this concept important?
Why is this concept important?
Tell them what you’re going to tell them.
Tell them what you’re going to tell them.
Why do you believe this? Better yet, why do
Why do you believe this? Better yet, why do
you want me to believe this?
you want me to believe this?
Present at least 3-5 core reasons.
Present at least 3-5 core reasons.
In an essay, one paragraph is all that is
In an essay, one paragraph is all that is
necessary. In a thesis, you might devote an
necessary. In a thesis, you might devote an
entire chapter to the Intro.
entire chapter to the Intro.
Tell them what you’re going to tell them.
Tell them what you’re going to tell them.
•
Within the
Within the
body
body
, you will present, in detail, each of
, you will present, in detail, each of
your 3-5 reasons for why you believe the central
your 3-5 reasons for why you believe the central
claim.
claim.
•
Each reason is important and thus, deserves its own
Each reason is important and thus, deserves its own
paragraph.
paragraph.
•
One paragraph = One idea unit
One paragraph = One idea unit
•
A good rule of thumb is that each paragraph should
A good rule of thumb is that each paragraph should
contain no less than three sentences.
contain no less than three sentences.
Tell them.
Tell them.
•
Present at least 3-5 more reasons to support each of your
3-5 core reasons.
•
If and ONLY if related, these 3-5 reasons should follow
one another in the same paragraph in an effort to support
one of you core reasons.
•
If they are not directly related, then they should be placed
in separate paragraphs.
•
Remember, one paragraph = one idea unit
AND
related ideas = one idea unit
Tell them.
Tell them.
Are there reasons why I shouldn’t believe this?
Consider objections to your:
○
Central claim,
○
Core reasons, and
○
Reasons to support you core reasons
If there are objections, then present them where relevant (i.e.
next to the idea it is objecting to).
Don’t go overboard with objections – you don’t want to persuade
the reader to disbelieve your initial claim! So, try to refute
objections as well!
Then why bother?
Presenting objections shows that you have:
Considered both sides of the argument
Critically evaluated
the topic
Tell them.
Tell them.
Reiterate the central claim.
Explain why you believe your central claim with a
little more specificity than in the introduction.
N.B. This can come from
the body (e.g. reasons for your
reasons).
What do your findings mean? What are their
implications? Were there any limitations? What
should future research look at? Again, why is this
important?
Tell them again.
I.
Introduction
I.
Something Quotable
II.
Central claim
III.
Why is it important?
IV.
Core Reasons
II.
Body
I.
Core Reason 1
I.
Supporting Reason 1
II.
Supporting Reason 2
III.
Supporting Reason 3
II.
Core Reason 2
I.
Supporting Reason 1
II.
Supporting Reason 2
III.
Supporting Reason 3
III.
Core Reason 3
I.
Supporting Reason 1
II.
Supporting Reason 2
III.
Supporting Reason 3
IV.
Core Reason 4
I.
Supporting Reason 1
II.
Supporting Reason 2
III.
Supporting Reason 3
V.
Core Reason 5
I.
Supporting Reason 1
II.
Supporting Reason 2
III.
Supporting Reason 3
III.
Conclusion
I.
Restatement of Central Claim, Importance & Core Reasons
II.
Summarise
III.
Implications, Limitations & Future Research
IV.
Concluding Points
Your weakest reason should go in
the middle.
Weakest , in this context, would
refer to the least amount of support
or the most easily criticised. In
which case, you might consider
providing an objection.
Your strongest reasons should go
first and last in the body.
STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE
Know what you’re going to argue.
Know why you’re arguing that way.
Know the alternatives.
Develop an essay
structure
in order
to provide yourself a visual
representation of what the essay will
look like before you even write it.
This will allow you to adapt and cope
with the potential ‘surprises’ that may
be encountered during the writing
process.
Where do I get my Reasons and
Where do I get my Reasons and
Objections?
Objections?
SCHOLAR!
SCHOLAR!
Use the 12-15 points rule as an anchor in essays.
Use the 12-15 points rule as an anchor in essays.
What is the Word limit?
What is the Word limit?
Perhaps, the word limit does not permit discussion of 12-15
Perhaps, the word limit does not permit discussion of 12-15
separate points.
separate points.
Maybe 9 points is more feasible?
Maybe 9 points is more feasible?
Do you have 12-15 points?
Do you have 12-15 points?
If not, do more research.
If not, do more research.
If you still don’t have 12-15 points after research, that’s fine
If you still don’t have 12-15 points after research, that’s fine
– make a greater effort to critically evaluate the points you
– make a greater effort to critically evaluate the points you
have.
have.
Common Mistakes
Common Mistakes
Writing down everything you know (including additional
research) and:
○
Submitting without revision
○
Realising you’ve more than doubled the word limit
What should I do?
What should I do?
Write down everything you know (including additional
research) and:
1.
Group related concepts together
2.
Rework vague ideas in order to provide clarity
3.
Remove weak ideas and reasons
4.
Organise these ideas (e.g. through an outline or an
argument map)
How? Restate the question.
How? Restate the question.
Critically evaluate the role of Daisy Buchanan
Critically evaluate the role of Daisy Buchanan
in the Great Gatsby.
in the Great Gatsby.
“Daisy Buchanan plays a major role in the Great
“Daisy Buchanan plays a major role in the Great
Gatsby for a number of reasons, including…”
Gatsby for a number of reasons, including…”
Discuss the concept of growth and its role in
Discuss the concept of growth and its role in
macro-economics.
macro-economics.
“The concept of growth is a vital factor to
“The concept of growth is a vital factor to
consider when evaluating macro-economics due
consider when evaluating macro-economics due
to…”
to…”
Critically evaluate…
Provide reasons, objections, limits and strengths.
Discuss…
Provide information learned in your lecture and
describe the related concepts in greater detail
(e.g. through outside reading).
Evaluation is a CT skill that is used in the assessment of
Evaluation is a CT skill that is used in the assessment of
propositions and claims, in which we:
propositions and claims, in which we:
1.
Assess the
Assess the
credibility
credibility
of arguments
of arguments
2.
Assess the
Assess the
relevance
relevance
of arguments
of arguments
3.
Assess the
Assess the
logical strength
logical strength
of an argument structure
of an argument structure
4.
Assess the
Assess the
balance and bias of evidence
balance and bias of evidence
in the argument
in the argument
During evaluation, our objective is to arrive at some conclusions
During evaluation, our objective is to arrive at some conclusions
about the overall strengths and weakness of an argument.
about the overall strengths and weakness of an argument.
You weren’t born knowledgeable!
References allow you to use the knowledge of others
without plagiarising.
References provide you with a source to argue
against – a good place to start critically
evaluating!
References allow you to exhibit the fact that
you did the research
!
There are many referencing styles.
Generally consist of:
○
Author, Year, Title, Place and Publisher (Book)
○
Author, Year, Title, Publication, Vol./Iss. and Pages
(Journal)
Referencing within the text: (Surname[s], Year)
After you have inferred a logical conclusion, you will
want to explain and present it clearly.
Txt tlk isnt gr8 4 SAs or T-sez
Write as if your Granny was reading.
Use Headings and Sub-Headings
Shows the reader that you have a structure
and
that your
understanding of the topic is organised.
This is the 21
st
Century
Type and Print
Black ink
Times New Roman
Size 12 font
Remove unnecessary words.
Re-evaluate words that end in ‘ly’.
Remove Unnecessary Verbiage
Remove Unnecessary Verbiage
The question as to whether
whether
There is no doubt that
no doubt
He is a man who
he
This is a subject that
this subject
His story is a strange one
His story is strange.
Don’t blindly use a thesaurus
Know the difference between e.g. and i.e.
e.g. = For example
i.e. = That is
Presentation: Common Errors
Presentation: Common Errors
There, Their and They’re
There, Their and They’re
Firstly
Firstly
Proved
Proved
Between / Among
Between / Among
Data
Data
Criteria
Criteria
Comma after introductory element
Comma after introductory element
In conclusion,
In conclusion,
For example,
For example,
Thus,
Thus,
Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.
Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas.
The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed
The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed
for time, is to travel on foot.
for time, is to travel on foot.
Presentation: Common Errors
Presentation: Common Errors
Apostrophes indicate possession, not plurality.
Apostrophes indicate possession, not plurality.
John’s
John’s
dog jumped…
dog jumped…
Students’
Students’
feelings towards continuous assessment…
feelings towards continuous assessment…
NOT
NOT
feelings towards CA’s (i.e. it should be CAs)
feelings towards CA’s (i.e. it should be CAs)
It’s / Its
It’s / Its
Semi-colons are useful for writing
Semi-colons are useful for writing
;
;
thus, it is important we use them.
thus, it is important we use them.
Don’t use conjunctions in academic/technical writing…
Don’t use conjunctions in academic/technical writing…
I mean,
I mean,
do not
do not
use conjunctions in academic/technical writing.
use conjunctions in academic/technical writing.
Do not end a sentence with a preposition.
Do not end a sentence with a preposition.
Presentation
Presentation
•
Pictures are cute, but don’t belong in an essay
–
If you think a diagram or chart might help elaborate
or clarify, include it as a figure.
–
Tables might also be included.
Figure 1: A system of cognitive processes for educational objectives
Table 1: Critical Thinking skills taught to students
Research
Evidence & Referencing
Answer the Question!
Quality, not quantity.
Critically evaluate!
Describe
Exemplify
Evaluate
Implications?
What is Expected of Me?
What is Expected of Me?
Report Writing
Report Writing
Developing a Research Question
Research Questions ‘define’ an empirical
investigation.
They set boundaries for the study.
They provide direction to the researcher on
how best to conduct the study and how to
tease out other important elements.
They act as a frame of reference for you to
assess your work. Always make sure that you
are actually answering the research question!
Literature Review
Provides the ‘bones’ of the study as it helps
you to ‘ground’ certain concepts in light of past
research – enabling you to expand your
research questions.
Allows you to justify your rationale!
What should it include?
Literature that is relevant to your research aims
Literature that is relevant to your data
Literature that is relevant to your methodology
Hypotheses!!!
Merits of the Literature Review
Exhibit ORGANISED knowledge
Exhibit Critical Thinking
Exhibit your ability to identify relevant information
Exhibit main theoretical debates
SCHOLAR!
SCHOLAR!
Sources of Literature
Methodology: What was
done?
Data Analysis
Participants
Materials & Measures
Procedure
Findings
State your findings in a
Results section
.
For example:
Results revealed that undergraduate
students exhibited significantly more
positive attitudes towards X-Factor than
post-graduate students.
In the
Discussion section
, interpret this
finding, that is: Why is this the case and
what does it mean?
Aggression is a complex behavior influenced by both biological and environmental factors. This essay explores the nature vs. nurture debate regarding aggressive behavior, delving into the role of testosterone, genetic factors, environmental influences, and psychological theories like Freud's ideas. By examining research on aggression in various contexts, the essay sheds light on the intricate interplay between biology and environment in shaping aggressive tendencies.
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Presentation Transcript
Writing Dr. Chris Dwyer School of Psychology National University of Ireland, Galway christopher.dwyer.phd@gmail.com
What is an Essay? An essay refers to a piece of prose-based writing that presents an argument. An argument is the presentation of a claim or some point of view, along with reasons and/or objections that either support or refute the claim. Consists of at least 12-15 points.
Remember, an Essay is an argument! All arguments share the characteristics of being composed of a network of propositions, prose-based or otherwise, that are structured via logical, inferential relationships: A central claim Reasons for why the central claim is true Objections to the central claim Rebuttals that object to objections
Aggression is a serious problem in society. It is commonplace to hear of events involving violence, verbal abuse and other forms of aggression. Many factors influence aggressive behaviour. For years, psychologists have sought to understand whether an individual s behaviour emerges as a result of nature (i.e. their biology) or nurture (i.e. their environment). Aggressive behaviour falls into this argument. Is aggressive behaviour a by product of nature or nurture? Ethologists have shown that aggression in members of a species can aid survival of that species. They have shown, for example, that intra-specific aggression has several biological advantages. When accompanied by rivalry among males for mating opportunities, intraspecific aggression tends to perpetuate the genes of the healthier, more vigorous animals. Freud theorised that thanatos (the death instinct) and libido (the sexual drive) help to form personality by virtue of the way sexuality and aggression were channelled. However, Freud s ideas are merely theoretical and little scientific findings support these ideas. This is because psychoanalytic ideas (e.g. the death instinct) cannot be adequately tested or falsified in an empirical fashion. One piece of evidence to suggest that biology causes aggression is the fact that testosterone is correlated with aggression. For example, there is evidence that high levels of testosterone are correlated with aggression, as are depleted levels of serotonin. Men have higher levels of testosterone and are generally more aggressive than women (Knight et al., 1996). The role testosterone plays in aggression was exemplified when Dabbs et al. (1988) found that female prison inmates who displayed unprovoked violence and who had received several other convictions also showed high levels of testosterone. Genetic factors play a major role in aggression (e.g. in the breed of dogs). Inbreeding can create unstable temperaments, and hormones can contribute to aggressive tendencies in intact male dogs. However, an individual s environment can affect his or her testosterone level. For example, increases in testosterone have been found in Brazilian supporters who saw their team win the 1994 World Cup on television (Fielden et al., 1994). On the nurture side of things, various environmental factors may also influence aggression. For example, when parents habitually resort to aggression, their children are likely to do the same. In extreme cases of child abuse, parents who beat their children usually turn out to have been victims of child abuse themselves (Parke & Collmer, 1975). This can also be seen in work done by Bandura (1977) found that, after watching an adult interact with a Bobo Doll , children tended to imitate the observed behaviour. For example, if the adult beat the doll with a stick, children often did the same. Longitudinal studies tracing development from childhood to adolescence have found that long- term viewing of violence on television is associated with an increase in boys violent behaviour as adults (Lefkowitz et al., 1977). However, Feshbach & Singer (1971) found that being subjected to consistent violent television programmes, over six months, as a teenager, didn t increase levels of aggression and found that in some cases individuals were less aggressive. Displacement of responsibility is an important factor in aggressive behaviour. When people feel less responsibility for their behaviour (e.g., in mob situations), they are more likely to act aggressively. Aggression tends to increase in groups, which is a result of group polarization. Group attitudes often polarize (i.e., become more extreme) when individuals with similar attitudes get together. One outcome is extreme aggression. Dollard et al. (1939) proposed that aggressive behaviour results from frustration in attempts to achieve personal goals. Dollard said that aggression is always a consequence of frustration and frustration always leads to some form of aggression . However, experimental evidence for the frustration-aggression theory is mixed. According to Berkowitz (1962), frustration yields anger and anger only leads to aggression when a person is exposed to an aggressive cue, e.g. a gun. In conclusion, one acknowledges that aggression is a serious problem in society. It is commonplace to hear of events involving violence, verbal abuse and other forms of aggression. There are many influences on aggressive behaviour, such as various biological and environmental factors. For years, psychologists have argued about whether or not human behaviour is the result of nature or nurture. Aggressive behaviour falls into this argument. There is no 'clear-cut' answer here, as both environmental and biological factors influence aggression.
WHAT IS AN ARGUMENT MAP? An argument map is a visual representation of that logically structured network of reasoning, in which the argument is made unambiguous and explicit. That is, there is no need for attention switching from paragraph to paragraph or from page to page in search of reasons and objections to the central claim around which the argument map is constructed.
Argument maps use a box and arrow design in which the boxes represent propositions (i.e. the central claim, reasons, objections and rebuttals) and the arrows among propositions indicate the inferential relationships linking the propositions together. Thus, the provision of an arrow between two propositions indicates that one is evidence for or against another.
Why would Argument Maps be able to facilitate improved learning? Maps are organised in a hierarchical structure, where propositions are identified as either reasons or objections. Colour (a Gestalt Grouping Principle of Similarity) allows the reader to easily differentiate reasons from objections. Argument Mapping removes the cognitive load (Sweller & Chandler, 1991) from thinking as the maps naturally chunk (Miller,1956) the propositions together in a close proximity, as opposed to text. Research suggests that argument maps not only improve memory (Dwyer, Hogan & Stewart, 2010; Dwyer, 2011), they also improve critical thinking (Alvarez-Ortiz, 2007; Butchart et al., 2009; Dwyer, 2011; van Gelder, 2000; 2001).
STRUCTURE OF AN ESSAY / THESIS All theses and essays consist of 3 parts: Tell them what you re going to tell them. 1. Introduction 2. Body Tell them. 3. Conclusion Tell them again.
THE INTRODUCTION Tell them what you re going to tell them. If you don t start with a quote, start with something quotable. 1. Thesis Statement or Central Claim What is this piece trying to argue? 2. So what? What s your point? Why is this concept important?
THE INTRODUCTION Tell them what you re going to tell them. Why do you believe this? Better yet, why do you want me to believe this? Present at least 3-5 core reasons. In an essay, one paragraph is all that is necessary. In a thesis, you might devote an entire chapter to the Intro.
THE BODY Tell them. Within the body, you will present, in detail, each of your 3-5 reasons for why you believe the central claim. Each reason is important and thus, deserves its own paragraph. One paragraph = One idea unit A good rule of thumb is that each paragraph should contain no less than three sentences.
THE BODY Tell them. Present at least 3-5 more reasons to support each of your 3-5 core reasons. If and ONLY if related, these 3-5 reasons should follow one another in the same paragraph in an effort to support one of you core reasons. If they are not directly related, then they should be placed in separate paragraphs. Remember, one paragraph = one idea unit AND related ideas = one idea unit
THE BODY Tell them. Are there reasons why I shouldn t believe this? Consider objections to your: Central claim, Core reasons, and Reasons to support you core reasons If there are objections, then present them where relevant (i.e. next to the idea it is objecting to). Don t go overboard with objections you don t want to persuade the reader to disbelieve your initial claim! So, try to refute objections as well! Then why bother? Presenting objections shows that you have: Considered both sides of the argument Critically evaluated the topic
THE CONCLUSION Tell them again. Reiterate the central claim. Explain why you believe your central claim with a little more specificity than in the introduction. N.B. This can come from the body (e.g. reasons for your reasons). What do your findings mean? What are their implications? Were there any limitations? What should future research look at? Again, why is this important?
Introduction Something Quotable Central claim III. Why is it important? IV. Core Reasons Body I. Core Reason 1 I. II. III. II. Core Reason 2 I. II. III. III. Core Reason 3 I. II. III. IV. Core Reason 4 I. II. III. V. Core Reason 5 I. II. III. Conclusion I. Restatement of Central Claim, Importance & Core Reasons II. Summarise III. Implications, Limitations & Future Research IV. Concluding Points I. I. II. STRUCTURE II. Your weakest reason should go in the middle. Supporting Reason 1 Supporting Reason 2 Supporting Reason 3 Weakest , in this context, would refer to the least amount of support or the most easily criticised. In which case, you might consider providing an objection. Supporting Reason 1 Supporting Reason 2 Supporting Reason 3 Supporting Reason 1 Supporting Reason 2 Supporting Reason 3 Your strongest reasons should go first and last in the body. Supporting Reason 1 Supporting Reason 2 Supporting Reason 3 Supporting Reason 1 Supporting Reason 2 Supporting Reason 3 III.
PLAN YOUR ESSAY / THESIS AHEAD OF TIME Know what you re going to argue. Know why you re arguing that way. Know the alternatives. Develop an essay structure in order to provide yourself a visual representation of what the essay will look like before you even write it. This will allow you to adapt and cope with the potential surprises that may be encountered during the writing process.
Where do I get my Reasons and Objections? GOOGLE SCHOLAR!
QUALITY, NOT QUANTITY Use the 12-15 points rule as an anchor in essays. What is the Word limit? Perhaps, the word limit does not permit discussion of 12-15 separate points. Maybe 9 points is more feasible? Do you have 12-15 points? If not, do more research. If you still don t have 12-15 points after research, that s fine make a greater effort to critically evaluate the points you have. I would much rather 12 points discussed and evaluated well, than 24 points merely presented.
QUALITY, NOT QUANTITY Common Mistakes Writing down everything you know (including additional research) and: Submitting without revision Realising you ve more than doubled the word limit What should I do? Write down everything you know (including additional research) and: 1. Group related concepts together 2. Rework vague ideas in order to provide clarity 3. Remove weak ideas and reasons 4. Organise these ideas (e.g. through an outline or an argument map)
ANSWER THE QUESTION! How? Restate the question. Critically evaluate the role of Daisy Buchanan in the Great Gatsby. Daisy Buchanan plays a major role in the Great Gatsby for a number of reasons, including Discuss the concept of growth and its role in macro-economics. The concept of growth is a vital factor to consider when evaluating macro-economics due to
ANSWER THE QUESTION! Critically evaluate Provide reasons, objections, limits and strengths. Discuss Provide information learned in your lecture and describe the related concepts in greater detail (e.g. through outside reading). ALWAYS CRITICALLY EVALUATE!!!
EVALUATION Evaluation is a CT skill that is used in the assessment of propositions and claims, in which we: 1. Assess the credibility of arguments 2. Assess the relevance of arguments 3. Assess the logical strength of an argument structure 4. Assess the balance and bias of evidence in the argument During evaluation, our objective is to arrive at some conclusions about the overall strengths and weakness of an argument.
WHAT ARE REFERENCES & WHY THEY ARE IMPORTANT? You weren t born knowledgeable! References allow you to use the knowledge of others without plagiarising. References provide you with a source to argue against a good place to start critically evaluating! References allow you to exhibit the fact that you did the research!
REFERENCES There are many referencing styles. Generally consist of: Author, Year, Title, Place and Publisher (Book) Author, Year, Title, Publication, Vol./Iss. and Pages (Journal) Referencing within the text: (Surname[s], Year) REMAIN CONSISTENT!!!
CLARITY & PRESENTATION After you have inferred a logical conclusion, you will want to explain and present it clearly. Txt tlk isnt gr8 4 SAs or T-sez Write as if your Granny was reading. Use Headings and Sub-Headings Shows the reader that you have a structure and that your understanding of the topic is organised. This is the 21st Century Type and Print Black ink Times New Roman Size 12 font
Remove unnecessary words. Re-evaluate words that end in ly . REMOVE UNNECESSARY VERBIAGE The question as to whether There is no doubt that He is a man who This is a subject that His story is a strange one this subject His story is strange. whether no doubt he Don t blindly use a thesaurus Know the difference between e.g. and i.e. e.g. = For example i.e. = That is
Presentation: Common Errors There, Their and They re Firstly Proved Between / Among Data Criteria Comma after introductory element In conclusion, For example, Thus, Enclose parenthetic expressions between commas. The best way to see a country, unless you are pressed for time, is to travel on foot.
Presentation: Common Errors Apostrophes indicate possession, not plurality. John s dog jumped Students feelings towards continuous assessment NOTfeelings towards CA s (i.e. it should be CAs) It s / Its Semi-colons are useful for writing; thus, it is important we use them. Don t use conjunctions in academic/technical writing I mean, do not use conjunctions in academic/technical writing. Do not end a sentence with a preposition.
Presentation Pictures are cute, but don t belong in an essay If you think a diagram or chart might help elaborate or clarify, include it as a figure. Tables might also be included. Table 1: Critical Thinking skills taught to students 1.Identifying arguments 1. Standardizing arguments 1. Necessary and sufficient conditions 1. Language (definitions and fallacies of language) 1. Accepting premises 1. Accepting relevance 1. Arguments from analogy 1. Arguments from experience 1. Causal arguments Figure 1: A system of cognitive processes for educational objectives
What is Expected of Me? Research Evidence & Referencing Answer the Question! Quality, not quantity. Critically evaluate! Describe Exemplify Evaluate Implications?
Report Writing Report Writing
Developing a Research Question Research Questions define an empirical investigation. They set boundaries for the study. They provide direction to the researcher on how best to conduct the study and how to tease out other important elements. They act as a frame of reference for you to assess your work. Always make sure that you are actually answering the research question!
Literature Review Provides the bones of the study as it helps you to ground certain concepts in light of past research enabling you to expand your research questions. Allows you to justify your rationale! What should it include? Literature that is relevant to your research aims Literature that is relevant to your data Literature that is relevant to your methodology Hypotheses!!!
Merits of the Literature Review Exhibit ORGANISED knowledge Exhibit Critical Thinking Exhibit your ability to identify relevant information Exhibit main theoretical debates
Sources of Literature GOOGLE SCHOLAR!
Methodology: What was done? Data Analysis Participants Materials & Measures Procedure
Findings State your findings in a Results section. For example: Results revealed that undergraduate students exhibited significantly more positive attitudes towards X-Factor than post-graduate students. In the Discussion section, interpret this finding, that is: Why is this the case and what does it mean?
