Advances in Astrophysics

Journal of Science and Technology ISSN: 2456-5660 Volume 4, Issue 6, Nov-December 2019, PP 24-31 www.jst.org.in Different Characteristics and Methods of Biofuel Production - Renewable Energy Source: A Review Supriya Jadhav1, Sameer Sharma2 1,2(Department of Biotechnology, Indian Academy Degree College, Bangalore, India Sameer21.97@gmail.com) ______________________________________________________________________________ Abstract: Biofuels are the fuels which are obtained exclusively from plant materials, biomass. Biofuels are renewable source of energy, not like fossil fuels like petroleum, gas, and coal. Nowadays, Biofuels industries are vastly growing with an auspicious role in producing renewable energy and affect global climate change. The term nano-technology has wide potential to realize cost effectiveness & process efficient biofuel industries. Many types of nano-materials are developing with exclusive properties for better and improved production of biofuel. Mainly, bio-diesel fuels commonly contain alkyl carboxylic acid or fatty acid chains, short-chain alcohol of esters, solvent (methanol or ethanol). Different types of methods are reported for the assembly of biodiesel from edible fat or vegetable oil such as micro-emulsification, pyrolysis, transesterification and many more. Among these, transesterification is an attention-seeker & broadly accepted process. Biodiesel fuel may be a renewable alternative method for petroleum fuel because it has very mutual characteristics but it has lower exhaust diffusion. Keywords:Biodiesel production, FAME, Catalytic & Non-catalytic Transesterification. _________________________________________________________________________________________ I. Introduction Fuels, established from biological feed stocks, are describe as biofuels. particularly, biofuels allowed to be in wide area classified into first-generation fuels and 2nd-generation fuels. First generation biofuels are usually derived from sugar, starch, and vegetable oil supply. Yet, second-technology biofuels are consisting of continuous feedstocks. A fossil gas is a gasoline shaped and it is created by using herbal method, such as anaerobic breakdown of covered dead organisms. Fossil fuels include high amount of carbon and surrounded by petroleum, coal, and natural gas. fossil fuels are generally used as transportation and machinery power supply due to its high heating electricity, availability and best agitation quality, still it's regulates in daily supply. After first attempt (Rudolf), the engine designed respect to run on vegetable oil [1] conceivably vegetable oil used as an another gasoline in a diesel engines, vegetable oils, in which pyrolysis technique passed through from biodiesel production and changes extremely in cetane range, low viscosity, and coffee sulphur content when it includes an insufficient quantity of ash and carbon content [2] An each other gasoline machine used for transportation is a motor vehicle that runs on a gasoline, other than common petroleum fuels. Now a day s diesel-powered vehicles produces about one-0.33 of the motors present in Europe and in the US and its dealing with expected income of diesel. Petro diesel used in the transportation is one-fourth; biodiesel can easily appear as the important answer for environmental troubles. First, it does but now it does not require any Engine adjustments; second it decreases greenhouse gasoline (ghg) diffusion considerably and finally it also develops lubricity. Those factors acquire biodiesel to present the day strength scenario for utilization of extra adaptable and attractive manner , which can be guarantee to the strength protection, environmental sustainability and also to boost rural improvement by the way of transferring of energy from petro to agro-industry, Together. Collected oil fuels are essential for holding the arena's energy desires, Most people accounting for (more than 80%) of the global number, electricity consumption, and recently predicted research, advanced by using the idea (2017) and BP (2018), shows an ongoing growth in fossil gasoline request, nearby to destiny, thinking about an extremely large area of things together accompanying for, technology development, presumption of coverage settlement so as to decrease greenhouse gas diffusion (ghg), as nicely, as modifications in the local construction facility. Biodiesel produced from virgin vegetable oil through transesterification is higher than the fossil gasoline, due to high raw cloth value. To extent the biofuel fee, in recent day s waste cooking oil is used as feedstock. Catalysts used in this technique are typically acids, base, and lipase. due to that fact lipase stimulates complete high-priced, the use of lipase in biodiesel production is limited [3-5] mono alkyl esters is one type of a renewable diesel, gasoline derived from some of vegetable oils or animal fats. As a renewable gasoline, biodiesel as been advertised to reduce petroleum intake. The biodiesel fuels are palm methyl ester (pme), jatropha methyl ester (jme), coconut oil methyl ester (come), 20% blends of pme with diesel gas and 20% blends of jme with diesel gas. The ordinary diesel gas changed into used for contrast purposes [6-10] biodiesel also can be mixed with mineral www.jst.org.in 24 | Page

Journal of Science and Technology ISSN: 2456-5660 Volume 4, Issue 6, Nov-December 2019, PP 24-31 www.jst.org.in oil [11]. even the wastes (byproducts) produced from biodiesel construction can be used for power production [12] transesterification is an esterification system of long chained triglycerides of vegetable oils into fatty acid methyl esters (fame) that's known as biodiesel. Various vegetable oils had been used to produce biodiesel specifically from peanut, rapeseed, safflower, sunflower, soya bean, palm, coconut, corn, cottonseed and linseed. Hence, biodiesel production also were given a success from non-fit for human utilization oils like mahua, neem, karanja and jatropha, which turn out to be buildup within the soft meals as opposed to gasoline battle [13-14] this paper examined the technology beginning with the direct use or mixing of oils, continuing with micro emulsion and pyrolysis and completing with an interest on the present day process of first choice, transesterification. Biodiesel can be used in pure shape (b100) or can be mixed with petroleum diesel at any cost. Biodiesel has extraordinary solvent properties from petro diesel, and will degrade herbal rubber gaskets and hoses in motors (mainly cars synthetic before 1992), still those likely to carry out naturally and no doubt already been changed with fkm, that is nonreactive to biodiesel. Biodiesel has been recognized to break down precipitation within the gas strains wherein petro diesel has been used. [15] As an end result, a quick transition to pure biodiesel is made. Fuel filters may end up clogged with particulates. Therefore, it is recommended to exchange the gasoline filters on engines and warmers rapidly after first switching to a biodiesel combo. [16] II. Biofuel Feedstocks and Utilization The two most typically use biofuel types are biodiesel and bioethanol which were derived mainly from vegetable oils, seeds and lignocelluloses. Biodiesel can be use to alternative diesel and bioethanol may be use in terms of petrol. Unusual biodiesel feedstock comes from plant oils like rapeseed, soybean, sunflower, palm and some few non-edible oils like Neem, Pongamia, Jatropha, Animal fats like beef tallow and used cooking oil can also be used as biodiesel after refining, while new sources like algae is taken into consideration to be the third generation of biofuel. There are numerous social, economic, environmental and technical issues with biofuel production and use, which have been discussed in the famous media and scientific journals. Those include: the effect of moderating oil costs, the "food vs. fuel" debate, food costs, poverty reduction potential, energy ratio, energy requirements, carbon emissions levels, sustainable biofuel production, deforestation and soil erosion, loss of biodiversity, [17] effect on water sources, the feasible changes important to run the engine on biofuel, as well as energy stability and performance [18]. III. Deconstruction and Fractionation To convert biomass into a biofuel, it need to first be interpreted into its chemical components. We will usually discriminate between deconstruction procedures through the temperature at which they take local area. A growth of in between may be shaped depending on the conditions used in this procedure. After analysis method of deconstruction can be divided into two categories: High-temperature deconstruction- refers to procedures completed above 200 c and includes deconstructive processes consisting of pyrolysis, hydrothermal and solvent liquefaction, and gasification. Low-temperature deconstruction- refers to procedures accomplished below 200 c and includes deconstruction processes consisting of enzymatic and acid hydrolysis. IV. Synthesis and Upgrading Intermediates generated following deconstruction can include crude bio-oils, gaseous collection, and other creating chemical blocks. Those products are enhanced by using various methods to provide a completed product. Real build up and separation procedures will change essentially in maintaining with the identification of the average spills. Spills with compact chemical classifications might also require less complicated strategies than spills regarding different compounds. Chemical rearrangement into the final fuel product may be involved in organic or chemical processing. Microorganisms can ferment sugar or gaseous intermediates into fuel product and chemical compounds. Sugars and other spills such as bio-oil and artificial gasoline can be processed catalytically to reduce the effect of reactive compounds to improve the deals with home and garages. The completed sale product may be fuels or bioproducts supplied to promote into the industrial marketplace and intermediates suitable for completing in a petroleum refinery or chemical manufacturing plant. www.jst.org.in 25 | Page

Journal of Science and Technology ISSN: 2456-5660 Volume 4, Issue 6, Nov-December 2019, PP 24-31 www.jst.org.in Figure 1 V. Biodiesel Summarization Biodiesel s characteristics strongly depend upon diverse plant feed stocks, growing climate conditions, soil type, fitness and plant maturity upon harvest. These parameters disturb the physical and chemical properties, which also have a relationship with overall performance and diffusion of the engine [19] Vegetable oils and animal fats are mainly composed of triacylglycerols (TAG) containing long chain fatty acids chemically bound to glycerol (1, 2, 3- propanetriol) backbone. The chemical manner with the aid of which biodiesel is prepared and known to be trans- esterification reaction, which involves a TAG reaction with a short chain monohydric alcohol normally in the presence of a catalyst at rises in temperature to form fatty acid alkyl esters (FAAE) and glycerol [20, 21] There are numerous characteristics analyzed for biodiesel as oxidation stability, cloud point, flash point, viscosity, and cetane number, copper strip, water content and acid number. Table 1: Characteristics of Bio-diesel. Viscosity of Biodiesel Gasoline viscosity is the main assets that play an important position in the combustion of gasoline. The direct injection inside the open combustion chamber over the nozzle and pattern of gasoline spray decides the convenience of combustion and thermal performance of the engine. To low viscosity can result in immoderate inner pump leakage www.jst.org.in 26 | Page

Journal of Science and Technology ISSN: 2456-5660 Volume 4, Issue 6, Nov-December 2019, PP 24-31 www.jst.org.in while system pressure reaches an unacceptable level and could have an effect on injection all over the spray atomization. The effect of viscosity is demanding at low speed or light load circumstances. The viscosity of biodiesel is usually higher than that of petro-diesel frequently with the aid of a, the viscosity increases as the proportion of biodiesel increases. Viscosity will increase with chain length of either the fatty acid or alcohol moiety in a fatty ester or in an aliphatic hydrocarbon [22-24]. Scintillation of The scintillation of biodiesel is used as a process to ceiling the level of un-reacted alcohol Biodiesel remaining in the cultured fuel. According to scintillation process, the safety precautions indulged in fuel handling and repository. And it is normally specified to meet the fire modulation [25] and the scintillation point of pure biodiesel is considered more than specified restriction but can also reduce very vastly with increased residual alcohol. As these two criteria are high correlated, scintillation process is used as a conveyance for categorizing the transport and repository fuels with various thresholds from area to area, so aligning the standards would possibly need a corresponding alignment of conveyance [23]. Sulphated cinders of Cinders (ash) are a measure of the quantity of metals and other inorganic compounds biodiesel contained in the fuel. Ash precursors might be exist in 3 forms (a) abrasive solids, (b) soluble metallic soaps, and (c) enduring biodiesel catalyst; when it comes to oxidized in case of combustion, these materials form cinders. Cinders or ash has been joined to engine deposits and dribble plugging, and metallic soaps can devote to store in the fuel system. After injection, abrasive solids and biodiesel catalyst materials also cause increased wear of internal fuel system engine components expressed to fuel [26]. Obscurity of In terms of melting point, biodiesel output depends on degree of saturation & chain length biodiesel in which long chain of saturated fatty acid esters showing un-favorable low temperature behavior [27]. Copper erosion of Erosion analyses indicate the potential compatibility issues between fuels and fuel biodiesel process components derived from various metals. Erosion outcome from biodiesel could be lured by some sulphur compounds or by acids. Hence, this parameter is inter- connected with acid number [28]. Cetane number of Cetane number used as a fuel s ignition and candescence element characteristics. Fuel biodiesel which is having less numbers of cetane that will leads to complex initiating, rough regulation, and increased smoke opacity. Generally, biodiesel has a little higher cetane numbers than fossil diesel because increasing length of ester groups & fatty acid chain, and it is inversely proportional to the number of double bonds [28]. Water activity and The fuel should be clear in appearance and free of visible water and total contamination. biodiesel debris Water accelerates oxidation, dramatically increases corrosivity and promotes microbial growth. Fatty Acid Methyl Ester or FAME is able of consuming significantly more H2O www.jst.org.in 27 | Page

Journal of Science and Technology ISSN: 2456-5660 Volume 4, Issue 6, Nov-December 2019, PP 24-31 www.jst.org.in than petroleum fuel, and it is mainly important to dehydrate Fatty Acid Methyl Ester during production and to diminish the potential to produce free H2O during blending. Another level of H2O cleared is within the solubility level of H2O in fuel & doesn t represent free H2O molecules. Esterification and refining method along with feedstock identification leads to develop various types of contamination, such as through soap. Poor fuel handling processes may produce undesired components that aren t soluble in Fatty Acid Methyl Ester. Lesser amount of such components will leads to fuel filter plugging and injector reposes and must be well controlled to skip harmful effects [26]. Carbon silt of Carbon silt is defined as the quantity of carbonaceous materials remained after biodiesel completion of evaporation and pyrolysis of a fuel under controlled conditions. Although this type of silt is not only made up of carbon, the term carbon silt is noted in all 3 standards due to its commonly used [28]. Acid number of According to acid number, it s measure the presence of acids in the fuel. These types of biodiesel acids produce from two sources: (a) acid leads to the production of biodiesel that aren t fully removed in the production mechanism, (b) used as a byproduct for degradation through oxidation. The acids are estimated in terms of specific amount of potassium hydroxide needed to neutralize a gram of Fatty Acid Methyl Ester. Normal oxidation mechanism will change according to the time in biodiesel blending process and recently studies has exposed that this change is a good source for B100 stability. Presence of acids in the fuel might be harming injection process & other metallic compounds [28]. Biodiesel through Glycerin act as a byproduct of the chemical reaction that generates biodiesel after the Glycerin ester gets separated. Glycerin also can disperse out from the liquid during storage after any type of methanolic process, which serves as a solvent hassolvent. Once separated, the glycerin will settle down and attracts like polar compounds such as water, mono- glyceridesmono glycerides & soaps that can inhibit filters, destructive injectors, also can cause injector coking & many other engine deposits [29]. Total Glycerol of Total glycerol is defined as the addition of the concentration of free glycerol and bounded biodiesel glycerol like mono-, di- and triglycerides. The concentration of glycerol depends on the production strategies and fuels that don t meet these specifications are prone to choking coking. Thus, it can cause the formation of storage on the injector nozzles, valve, and pistons [30]. Alkali metals of Use of sodium and potassium to enhance the production of biodiesel should retain these biodiesel metals before conceding the biodiesel to stop the production process. Continuing alkali metals may form deposits in the fuel injection process & poison emission control process. Sodium and potassium are also correlated with cinder formation [30]. www.jst.org.in 28 | Page

Journal of Science and Technology ISSN: 2456-5660 Volume 4, Issue 6, Nov-December 2019, PP 24-31 www.jst.org.in VI. Methods for Production of Bio-diesel from Triglycerides Catalytic Transesterification One of the foremost process accustomed reduce oil viscosity within the biodiesel production is termed as transesterification. Transesterification or Alcoholysis is that the reaction of a fat triglyceride with an alcohol to make ester and glycerol because of the reversible reaction & excess alcohol is employed to change the merchandise side. According to catalytic transesterification process, the catalyst is dissolved into the solvent (methanol) by stirring into a small reactor. A complete transesterification will produce two liquid stages which are ester & crude glycerin [31]. In crude glycerin, the heavier of the two liquid, will collect at bottom after several hours of settling. Sometimes, completion of settling phase may take as long as 20 hour. After the settling process is done, water is mixed with the methyl ester of oil followed by stirring for five min before the glycerin is conceded to settle [32]. After that, there is a two step washing process, which must be administered with extreme care. Alcoholysis or transesterification is usual conversion method accustomed convert triglyceride of oil to fatty acid methyl esters by displacing alcohol from an ester by another solvent [33-36]. Among the various sort of catalyst used such as alkali, acid & enzyme based), alkali based catalyst are common utilized in industrial processes because it is simpler and fewer corrosive to the economic equipment [37]. VII. Non-catalytic Super-Analytical Methanol Transesterification The major variables affecting the process of methyl ester product during transesterification process are molar ratio of alcohol to edible fat & reaction temperature. And the viscosities of the methyl esters from the edible fat or vegetable oils were slightly above from the normal fuel. And the higher molar ratio end with greater ester production during a shorter period of time. The super-analytical methanol process is non-catalytic in nature, indulges simpler purification in shorter time period. Although, super - analytical method could be simpler and efficient than the normal commercial process [33]. The influencing parameters to methyl ester production are pressure, temperature, water content, molar ratio, and free fatty acid contents. It was already noted that during temperature rising, especially in super-analytical conditions, had a positive effect on the outcome of ester conversion. The outcome of the alkyl ester increased when the molar ratio of oil to alcohol was significantly increased. Within the super- analytical alcohol transesterification process, the outcome of conversion increases 60% to 95% in the initial 10 minutes. For traditional catalytic transesterification of oil, water content is the primary source of process [38] & conventional transesterification of fats & edible oils for biodiesel production [33]. VIII.Renewable Energy Source Renewable energy is defined as the energy produced from sources that do not deplete or are often replenished within a human period of life cycle. And the foremost common example includes geo-thermal energy, solar energy, biomass, and hydropower. Generally, it is accepted that the crops accustomed to produce them are often replenished much faster than fossils fuels [39]. IX. Use of Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats in Fuel Engines The technical and economic aspects of using components of the usage of vegetable oils as alternative sources for diesel fuels were studied considerably during the past two years, Although the fact that lot of recent researches and improvement for such replacements and the ability for their production is more in developing nations. This report will review a number of the outcomes acquired from the use of vegetable oils and their derivatives as fuel in condensation combustion engines and take a look at opportunities for their broader manufacturing and use, the overall performance of various oils, basic potential in diesel fuel, environmental considerations, and different studies opportunities. vegetable oils will no longer completely disturb petroleum as a supply of diesel fuel. There are, technical, economic, and environmental concerns that may result in their wider use in this utility [40]. There are 4 special ways of modifying vegetable oils and fats to use them as diesel gas, which includes pyrolysis (thermal cracking), dilution with hydrocarbons (blending), emulsification and transesterification. The most typically used process is transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats. The transesterification reaction is impacted for the molar ratio of glycerides to alcohol, agitation, temperature, time and free fatty acids (FFA) and water content of oils or fats. In the transesterification, free fatty acids (FFA) and water content usually produce negative effects, because of that reason presence of free fatty acids and water causes soap formation, consumes catalyst and reduces stimulant product formation, all of which result in a low production. Biodiesel has over the double charge of diesel. the high charge of biodiesel is in large component because of the to much charge of the feedstock [41]. Tobacco seed is a www.jst.org.in 29 | Page

Journal of Science and Technology ISSN: 2456-5660 Volume 4, Issue 6, Nov-December 2019, PP 24-31 www.jst.org.in byproduct of tobacco leaves which is manufacturing in Greece. This oil seed studied, as a renewable and potential source of energy. A study shows that this non edible oil can be the suitable alternative for diesel fuel. The environmental benefits of tobacco seed oil as a gasoline may be used for precise slot markets inclusive of inner town vehicles or tractors. On the other hand, tobacco seed oil as a gasoline represents hope for the future of European tobacco agriculture [42]. Fats and oils are primarily water-insoluble, hydrophobic substances within the plant and animal kingdoms which can be made up of 1 mol of glycerol and three moles of fatty acids and are typically called triglycerides [43]. Triglyceride vegetable oils and fats consist of not only edible but also inedible vegetable oils and fats for human consumption like linseed, and Castor oil. Also more than 350 oil-bearing crops had been identified, which is soybean, palm, sunflower, cottonseed, and peanut oils are taken into consideration as a possible other fuels for diesel engines [44, 45]. The oils from neem and rubber have more free fatty acid content & FFAs effortlessly react with alkaline catalysts to form soap that block/stop the separation of biodiesel and glycerol. The developing soaps also induce an growth in viscosity and foams and make the separation of glycerol difficult [46] The total production of oils and fats about 80% is operated for the food purposes 6% is operated in animal feed, and the remaining 14% supplies the basis of the oleo-chemical industry [47]. X. Conclusion Currently, for a developing demand of transport fuel for millions of existing automobiles, so we require a alternative which may be easily adapt with the environment and existing supply and biofuel is a proper candidate for this problem. Recently studies revealed that the internal combustion engines made for petroleum fuels utilization which is not applicable for long term operation on biodiesel. Although till date, wind energy, tidal energy, solar energy are all very prospective type of renewable energy. Hence, a tiny modification may be give a solution for fuel properties for good engine compatibility. On the contrary, there is no modified present vehicle patent which runs on bio-diesel, so considering all the perspectives and conclusions that multi-functional fuel properties might be make biodiesels more engine suitable. References [1] Ghobadian B, Rahimi H, Nikbakht AM, Najafi G,Yusaf TF. Diesel engine performance and exhaust emission analysis using waste cooking biodiesel fuel with an artificial neural network, Renewable Energy 2009; 34: 976-82 [2] Silitonga AS et al. A review on prospect of Jatropha curcas for biodiesel in Indonesia, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2011; 15: 3733-56 [3] Ma F, Hanna MA. 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Journal of Science and Technology ISSN: 2456-5660 Volume 4, Issue 6, Nov-December 2019, PP 24-31 www.jst.org.in [23] Amit Sarin, Biodiesel: production and properties 2009; 4-122 [24] Gerpen Jon Van., Knothe Gerhard, and Krahl Jurgen, "The Biodiesel Handbook" 2005; 1-27 [25] Prugh W. Richarad, The relationship between flash point and LFL with application to hybridhydrid mixture", American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 41 st annual lossannualloss prevention symposium 2007; 22-6 [26] Mittelbach M. Diesel fuel derived from vegetable oils, VI: Specifications and quality control of biodiesel, Bioresource Technology 1996; 56: 7-11. [27] Rao, PV. Experimental Investigations on the Influence of Properties of Jatropha Biodiesel on Performance, Combustion, and Emission Characteristics of a DI-CI Engine, World Academy of Science, Engineering and Technology 2011; 75: 855-68. [28] Jayed, MH et al. Prospects of dedicated biodiesel engine vehicles in Malaysia and Indonesia, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 2011; 15: 220-35. [29] Mittelbach M, Gangl S. Long storage stability of biodiesel made from rapeseed and used frying oil, Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society 2001; 78: 573-7. [30] Mittelbach M, W rgetter M, Pernkopf J, Junek H. Diesel fuel derived from vegetable oils: Preparation and use of rape oil methyl ester, Energy in Agriculture 1983; 2: 369-84. [31] Bala BK. Production of Biodiesel with Seed Soybean and Supercritical Ethanol. Energy Edu. Sci. Technol 2005; 15: 1 43. [32] Schuchardt, U, Ricardo Sercheli R, Vargas, RM. Transesterification of vegetable oils: a reviewJ. Braz. Chem. Soc 1998; 9: 199 210 [33] Kusdiana D. Saka S. Effects of water on biodiesel fuel production by supercritical methanol treatment. Bioresources Technol 2004; 91: 289 95 [34] Hama S, Yamaji H, Kaieda M, Oda M, Kondo A, Fukuda H Effect of fatty acid membrane composition on whole-cell biocatalysts for biodiesel-fuel Biochem. Eng. J 2004; 21: 155 60. [35] Oda M, Kaieda M, Hama S, Yamaji H, Kondo A, Izumoto E, Fukuda H. Effect of fatty acid membrane composition on whole-cell biocatalysts for biodiesel-fuel Biochem. Eng. J 2004; 23: 45 51. [36] Du W, Xu Y, Liu D, Zeng J. comparative study on lipase catalyzed transformation of soyabean oil for biodiesel production with different acyl acceptors. J. Mol. Catal. B 2004; 30: 125 9. [37] Noureddini H, Gao X, Philkana RS. Immobilized Pseudomonas cepacia lipase for biodiesel fuel production from soybean oil. Bioresources Technol 2005; 96: 769 77 [38] Demirbas,A. Biodiesel from vegetable oils via transesterification in supercritical methanol Energy Convers. Mgmt 2002; 43: 2349 56. [39] Demirbas A. Biofuels sources, biofuel policy, biofuel economy and global biofuel projections. 2008 [40] Shay EG. Diesel fuel from vegetable oils: status and opportunities. Biomass Bioenergy 1993; 4: 227 42 [41] Demirbas A, Karslioglu S. Biodiesel production facilities from vegetable oils and animal fats. Energy Source, Part A 2007; 29: 133 41 [42] Giannelos PN, Zannikos F, Stournas S, Lois E, Anastopoulos G. Tobacco seed oil as an alternative diesel fuel: physical and chemical properties. Ind Crop Prod 2002; 16: 1 169. [43] Sonntag NOV. Reactions of fats and fatty acids. In: Swern D, editor. Bailey s industrial oil and fat products, 4th ed., vol. 1. New York: Wiley; 1979: 99. [44] Goering E, Schwab W, Daugherty J, Pryde H, Heakin J. Fuel properties of eleven vegetable oils. Trans ASAE 1982; 25: 1472 83. [45] Pryor RW, Hanna MA, Schinstock JL, Bashford LL. Soybean oil fuel in a small diesel engine. Trans ASAE 1982; 26: 333 8 [46] Wright HJ, Segur JB, Clark HV, Coburn SK, Langdom EE, DuPuis RN. A report on ester interchange. Oil Soap 1944; 21: 145 8 [47] Gunstone FD, Hamilton RJ, editors. Oleochemicals manufacture and applications. Sheffield, UK/Boca Raton, FL: Sheffield Academic Press/CRC Press; 2001. www.jst.org.in 31 | Page