Understanding Formative Assessment in Education

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Dylan Wiliam (@dylanwiliam)
 
Embedding formative assessment
www.dylanwiliamcenter.com
 
Learning and performance
 
Alley maze experiments
Hungry rats put in mazes
Removed when they reach
the food box
Learning measured by
number of entrances into
blind alleys
Learning and performance
Tolman and Honzik (1930) adapted by Sodestrom and Bjork (2015)
What is learning?
 
Learning is “a change in long-term memory”
(Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2016 p. 77)
“The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term
memory. If nothing has changed in long-term
memory, nothing has been learned.” (ibid p. 77)
4
Where should our efforts be focused?
 
Which of these is most strongly associated with high
student achievement?
A.
Student speaks the language of instruction at home
B.
Student behavior in the school is good
C.
The amount of inquiry-based instruction
D.
The amount of teacher-directed instruction
E.
The school’s socio-economic profile
5
OECD (2016, Fig II.7.2)
 
Top 3 factors
1.
Student’s socio-economic profile
2.
Index of adaptive instruction
3.
The amount of teacher-directed instruction
undefined
 
Why formative assessment
needs to be a priority
 
 
6
Why Formative Assessment?
 
A principle and an uncomfortable fact about the world
The principle:
"If I had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle,
I would say this: The most important single factor influencing
learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach
him [or her] accordingly” (Ausubel, 1968 p. vi)
The uncomfortable fact:
Students do not learn what we teach.
What is learning?
Learning is a change in long-term memory (Kirschner et al., 2006)
The fact that someone can do something now does not mean they
will be able to do it in six weeks, 
but
If they cannot do something now, it is highly unlikely they will be
able to do it in six weeks
7
 
Building Plan “B” into Plan “A”
 
8
 
Relevant studies
 
Fuchs & Fuchs (1986)
Natriello (1987)
Crooks (1988)
Bangert-Drowns et al. (1991)
Dempster (1991, 1992)
Elshout-Mohr (1994)
Kluger & DeNisi (1996)
Black & Wiliam (1998)
 
Nyquist (2003)
Allal & Lopez (2005)
Köller (2005)
Brookhart (2007)
Wiliam (2007)
Hattie & Timperley (2007)
Shute (2008)
Kingston & Nash (2011, 2015)
 
9
Formative assessment: A contested term
 
Span
 
Length
 
Impact
 
Long-cycle
 
Medium-cycle
 
Short-cycle
Across terms,
teaching units
Four weeks to
one year
Monitoring,
curriculum
alignment
Within and
between
lessons
Minute-by-
minute and
day-by-day
Engagement,
responsiveness
Within and
between
teaching units
One to four
weeks
Student-
involved
assessment
10
Unpacking formative assessment
Clarifying,
sharing, and
understanding
learning
intentions
Eliciting 
evidence
of learning
Providing
feedback
 that
moves learners
forward
Activating students as learning
resources for one another
Activating students as
owners of their own learning
11
Unpacking formative assessment
12
Using evidence of
achievement to adapt what
happens in classrooms to
meet learner needs
undefined
 
Strategies and practical
techniques for
classroom formative
assessment
 
 
13
undefined
 
Clarifying, sharing and
understanding learning
intentions
 
 
14
 
 
“The indispensable conditions for improvement are
that the student comes to hold a concept of quality
roughly similar to that held by the teacher, is able to
monitor continuously the quality of what is being
produced during the act of production itself, and has
a repertoire of alternative moves or strategies from
which to draw at any given point. In other words,
students have to be able to judge the quality of what
they are producing and be able to regulate what they
are doing during the doing of it.” (Sadler, 1989 p. 121)
 
15
 
Memory on land and underwater
 
18 (5f, 13m) student members of a university diving club
were tested on their recall of two- and three-syllable words
from four 36-word lists taken from the Toronto Word Bank
spoken to them twice.
Students learned, and were tested on, the words while
underwater, and while on the shore, resulting in four
conditions:
DD (learn dry, recall dry)
DW (learn dry, recall wet)
WD (learn wet, recall dry)
WW (learn wet, recall wet)
 
16
Memory and context
17
Godden and Baddeley (1975)
No significant main effects; interaction effect: F=22.0; df = 1, 12; p= <0.001
 
11.4
Alcohol and memory
 
32 adults (aged 22 to 43) asked to memorize a map and a 19-
item set of instructions for a journey
Half did so sober and half at the legal limit for intoxication
The following day, half of them were tested sober and half at
the legal limit for intoxication
.
Lowe (1981)
 
16
Share learning intentions
 
Keep the context out of the learning intention
Differentiate success criteria, not learning intentions
Process versus product success criteria
Generic, not specific criteria
Start with samples of work, rather than rubrics, to
communicate quality
Quality cannot always be reduced to words
Ensure deep and surface features are not aligned
Don’t abdicate responsibility for quality
Get students to generate their own tests
19
Question generation and learning
 
210 Introduction to Psychology students studied a
2,300 word text “The work of being a bee”
Students prepared for a test given two days later
One control group (left to their own devices)
Six treatment groups
 
20
Foos, Mora and Tkacz (1994)
Six treatment groups
21
Question generation and learning
 
210 Introduction to Psychology students studied a
2,300 word text “The work of being a bee”
Students prepared for a test given two days later
One control group (left to their own devices)
Six treatment groups
Four types of student-generated questions
essay/fill-in-the-blank/multiple-choice/true-false
30-item test (15 multiple-choice, 15 fill-in-the blank)
Items classified as “target”/“non-target”
 
 
22
Foos, Mora and Tkacz (1994)
Test scores
23
 
Possible confounds
 
Student-generated material may have focused on
material tested with easier items
Experimenter-generated materials targeted more
items, resulting in less time to study each item
Retention intervals may have been shorter for
students preparing their own materials
All experimenter-generated study questions  were
essay questions, while some student-generated
questions were not
 
24
 
Experiment 2
 
50 general psychology students from 2 US colleges
Studied same text as experiment 1 for 30 minutes
Half asked to generate study questions as they read
Half given study questions generated by others
 
 
25
Experiment 2 results
26
Foos, Mora, and Tkacz (1994)
undefined
 
Engineering effective
discussions, activities,
and classroom tasks
that elicit evidence of
learning
 
27
Eliciting evidence
 
Two good reasons to ask a question
To cause thinking
To collect evidence to inform instruction
No hands up (except to ask a question)
Choose students at random
No opting out
Avoiding questions altogether
28
 
Alternatives to questioning
 
Declarative statement
Conservatives believe in privatisation
But the Labour Party also believes in privatisation
Reflective re-statement
Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrats believe in X
So you
re saying that all three major political parties believe in X
Statement of mind
X and Y seem contradictory. I don
t see how you can believe in both
Statement of interest
I
m interested in hearing a little more about X
Student referral
Your views contradict the views of the last speaker
Teacher opinion
That certainly has(n
t) been my experience
 
Alternatives to questions
 
Student questions
speaker question
Can you express your confusion in the form of a question?
class question
Does any one else have a question about what X has been saying?
discussion question
What kinds of questions should we be thinking about now
Signals
phatics & fillers
pass (to another speaker)
Silences
deliberate
non-deliberate
 
Dillon (1988)
Eliciting evidence
 
Two good reasons to ask a question
To cause thinking
To collect evidence to inform instruction
No hands up (except to ask a question)
Choose students at random
No opting out
Avoiding questions altogether
All-student response systems
Decision-driven data collection
Finger voting, dry erase boards, exit tickets
Two kinds of questions
Discussion questions
Diagnostic questions
31
undefined
 
Eliciting evidence:
Kinds of questions
 
 
32
 
Discussion questions: Science
 
Ice-cubes are added to a glass of water. What
happens to the level of the water as the ice-cubes
melt?
A.
The level of the water drops
B.
The level of the water stays the same
C.
The level of the water increases
D.
You need more information to be sure
 
Discussion questions: History
 
In which year did World War II begin?
A.
1919
B.
1938
C.
1939
D.
1940
E.
1941
 
Diagnostic questions: Psychology
 
Which of the following is the most important difference
between the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky?
A.
Piaget places greater importance on the role of conservation
in cognitive development
B.
Vygotsky places greater importance on the role of cultural
artifacts in cognitive development.
C.
Vygotsky did not believe in distinct stages of cognitive
development.
D.
Piaget was a social constructivist while Vygotsky placed
greater emphasis on cultural-historical activity theory
 
35
 
Developing good questions
 
1.
Start by identifying a “hinge-point” in a lesson
plan—a point where you need to collect evidence
from students in order to decide what to do next
2.
Identify any relevant misconceptions
a.
by discussion with colleagues
b.
by asking the question as an “exit-pass”
3.
Develop the question
4.
Ask colleagues to look for possible false-positives
5.
Trial the question with students, asking them to
explain their choices
 
36
undefined
Correct
Incorrect
Cognitive rules
Responses
A
B
C
D
E
37
 
What makes a good hinge question?
 
38
 
Essential:
1.
In no case do incorrect and correct cognitive rules lead
to the same response
Desirable (in order of priority):
1.
Different incorrect cognitive rules lead to different
responses
2.
Different correct cognitive rules lead to different
responses
Two approaches to question writing
Distractor-driven multiple-choice questions
Multiple correct solutions
 
Multiple correct responses
 
What is the area of the semi-circle?
A.
 
B.
 
C.
 
D.
 
E.
 
20 cm
 
 
39
undefined
 
Providing feedback that
moves learners forward
 
40
 
Origins and antecedents
 
Feedback (Wiener, 1948)
Developing range-finders for anti-aircraft guns
Effective action requires a closed system within which
Actions taken within the system are evaluated
Evaluation of the actions leads to modification of future actions
Two kinds of loops
Positive (bad: leads to collapse or explosive growth)
Negative (good: leads to stability)
“Feedback is information about the gap between the actual
level and the reference level of a system parameter which is
used to alter the gap in some way” (Ramaprasad, 1983 p. 4)
Feedback and instructional correctives (Bloom)
 
41
 
Discussion
 
42
 
Are the differences between how the
term feedback is used in engineering
and education important?
How do you feel about the term
“feed-forward”?
 
Feedback in psychology
 
Feedback is “any of the numerous procedures that
are used to tell a learner if an instructional
response is right or wrong” (Kulhavy, 1977 p. 211)
Key debate: confirmation vs. correction
… it is no surprise that scholars have worked overtime to fit
the round peg of feedback into the square hole of
reinforcement. Unfortunately, this stoic faith in feedback-
as-reinforcement has all too often led researchers to
overlook or disregard alternate explanations for their data.
One does not have to look far for articles that devote
themselves to explaining why their data failed to meet
operant expectations rather than to trying to make sense
out of what they found. (op cit. p. 213)
 
 
43
… an evolving concept (Brookhart, 2007)
Conceptualization
 
Information about the
learning process…
… that teachers can use for
instructional decisions…
…and students can use to
improve performance…
…which motivates students
Source(s)
 
Scriven (1967)
Bloom, Hastings and
Madaus (1971)
Sadler (1983; 1989)
Natriello (1987); Crooks
(1988); Black and Wiliam
(1998); Brookhart (1997)
44
 
Kinds of feedback (Nyquist, 2003)
 
Weaker feedback only
Knowledge of results (KoR)
Feedback only
KoR + clear goals or knowledge of correct results (KCR)
Weak formative assessment
KCR+ explanation (KCR+e)
Moderate formative assessment
(KCR+e) + specific actions for gap reduction
Strong formative assessment
(KCR+e) + activity
 
Effects of formative assessment (HE)
 
Nyquist (2003)
 
Wise feedback: Study 1
 
44 7
th
 grade students in 3 social studies classrooms
Students wrote an essay about a personal hero
Students received critical feedback plus a note
Control: “I’m giving you these comments so that you’ll
have feedback on your paper.”
Treatment: “I’m giving you these comments because I
have very high expectations and I know that you can
reach them.”
Double-blind
 RCT design
Students given a week to resubmit
 
Yeager, Purdie-Vaughns, Garcia, Apfel, Brzustoski, Master, Hessert, Williams, & Cohen (2014)
 
Student revisions
 
Wise feedback: Study 2
 
Same as study 1, except
Different students
Students are required to resubmit essays
 
Impact on achievement
 
Trust in school
 
Wise feedback: Study 3
 
Focus on “attributional retraining”
76 students in an urban NYC high school
One 20-minute computer-delivered intervention
Double-blind RCT, allocation to 3 conditions
wise feedback (student testimonials re wise feedback)
placebo control (written placebo testimonials)
null control (puzzles)
Outcome measure: average scores on 4 core subjects
English
history
math
science
 
 
Wise feedback examples
 
1.
Teachers give critical feedback, sometimes a lot of it, to students
that they believe in. It’s a hard lesson. But I’ve come to learn that
criticism doesn’t mean my teacher sees me as dumb. It means
they think their students can reach that high standard.
2.
Sometimes people think that all the red ink on your paper
happens for some other reason, like maybe the teacher is biased.
But think of pro athletes or baseball teams that make it to the
World Series. Just like in sports, you need that critical feedback to
get excellent.
3.
The teachers who give me feedback that corrects my mistakes are
the ones who really care. They take you seriously, like a good
coach does. You might not get good criticism like that all the time
in school. But when you do get it, it’s like gold.
 
Impact on student achievement
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Exploring the significance of formative assessment in education through insights from renowned educators like Dylan Wiliam. Delve into the essence of learning, strategies for student achievement, and the need to prioritize formative assessment for effective teaching practices.


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  1. Embedding formative assessment Dylan Wiliam (@dylanwiliam) www.dylanwiliamcenter.com

  2. Learning and performance Alley maze experiments Hungry rats put in mazes Removed when they reach the food box Learning measured by number of entrances into blind alleys

  3. Learning and performance Reinforcement None Regular Delayed 12 10 Average errors 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 Day Tolman and Honzik (1930) adapted by Sodestrom and Bjork (2015)

  4. What is learning? 4 Learning is a change in long-term memory (Kirschner, Sweller, & Clark, 2016 p. 77) The aim of all instruction is to alter long-term memory. If nothing has changed in long-term memory, nothing has been learned. (ibid p. 77)

  5. Where should our efforts be focused? 5 Which of these is most strongly associated with high student achievement? A. Student speaks the language of instruction at home B. Student behavior in the school is good C. The amount of inquiry-based instruction D. The amount of teacher-directed instruction E. The school s socio-economic profile Top 3 factors 1. Student s socio-economic profile 2. Index of adaptive instruction 3. The amount of teacher-directed instruction OECD (2016, Fig II.7.2)

  6. 6 Why formative assessment needs to be a priority

  7. Why Formative Assessment? 7 A principle and an uncomfortable fact about the world The principle: "If I had to reduce all of educational psychology to just one principle, I would say this: The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. Ascertain this and teach him [or her] accordingly (Ausubel, 1968 p. vi) The uncomfortable fact: Students do not learn what we teach. What is learning? Learning is a change in long-term memory (Kirschner et al., 2006) The fact that someone can do something now does not mean they will be able to do it in six weeks, but If they cannot do something now, it is highly unlikely they will be able to do it in six weeks

  8. Building Plan B into Plan A 8

  9. Relevant studies 9 Fuchs & Fuchs (1986) Natriello (1987) Crooks (1988) Bangert-Drowns et al. (1991) Dempster (1991, 1992) Elshout-Mohr (1994) Kluger & DeNisi (1996) Black & Wiliam (1998) Nyquist (2003) Allal & Lopez (2005) K ller (2005) Brookhart (2007) Wiliam (2007) Hattie & Timperley (2007) Shute (2008) Kingston & Nash (2011, 2015)

  10. Formative assessment: A contested term 10 Long-cycle Medium-cycle Short-cycle Within and between teaching units Within and between lessons Across terms, teaching units Span Minute-by- minute and day-by-day Four weeks to one year One to four weeks Length Monitoring, curriculum alignment Student- involved assessment Engagement, responsiveness Impact

  11. Unpacking formative assessment 11 Where the learner is going Where the learner is now How to get the learner there Providing feedback that moves learners forward Eliciting evidence of learning Teacher Clarifying, sharing, and understanding learning intentions Activating students as learning resources for one another Peer Activating students as owners of their own learning Student

  12. Unpacking formative assessment 12 Where the learner is going Where the learner is now How to get the learner there Teacher Using evidence of achievement to adapt what happens in classrooms to meet learner needs Peer Student

  13. 13 Strategies and practical techniques for classroom formative assessment

  14. 14 Clarifying, sharing and understanding learning intentions

  15. 15 The indispensable conditions for improvement are that the student comes to hold a concept of quality roughly similar to that held by the teacher, is able to monitor continuously the quality of what is being produced during the act of production itself, and has a repertoire of alternative moves or strategies from which to draw at any given point. In other words, students have to be able to judge the quality of what they are producing and be able to regulate what they are doing during the doing of it. (Sadler, 1989 p. 121)

  16. Memory on land and underwater 16 18 (5f, 13m) student members of a university diving club were tested on their recall of two- and three-syllable words from four 36-word lists taken from the Toronto Word Bank spoken to them twice. Students learned, and were tested on, the words while underwater, and while on the shore, resulting in four conditions: DD (learn dry, recall dry) DW (learn dry, recall wet) WD (learn wet, recall dry) WW (learn wet, recall wet)

  17. Memory and context 17 Recall environment Dry Wet Dry 13.5 8.6 Learning environment 11.4 Wet 8.4 No significant main effects; interaction effect: F=22.0; df = 1, 12; p= <0.001 Godden and Baddeley (1975)

  18. Alcohol and memory 32 adults (aged 22 to 43) asked to memorize a map and a 19- item set of instructions for a journey Half did so sober and half at the legal limit for intoxication The following day, half of them were tested sober and half at the legal limit for intoxication. Number of items correct Day 1 Day 2 Day 1: sober; day 2: sober 17 17 Day 1: sober; day 2: intoxicated 17 11 Day 1: intoxicated; day 2: sober 18 13 Day 1: intoxicated; day 2: intoxicated 16 16 Lowe (1981)

  19. Share learning intentions 19 Keep the context out of the learning intention Differentiate success criteria, not learning intentions Process versus product success criteria Generic, not specific criteria Start with samples of work, rather than rubrics, to communicate quality Quality cannot always be reduced to words Ensure deep and surface features are not aligned Don t abdicate responsibility for quality Get students to generate their own tests

  20. Question generation and learning 20 210 Introduction to Psychology students studied a 2,300 word text The work of being a bee Students prepared for a test given two days later One control group (left to their own devices) Six treatment groups Foos, Mora and Tkacz (1994)

  21. Six treatment groups 21 Generated by Generated by Generated by Generated by Student Student Student Student Experimenter Experimenter Experimenter Experimenter Outline Outline Outline Generate an outline Generate an outline Generate an outline Given experimenter- Given experimenter- Given experimenter- generated outline generated outline generated outline Questions Questions Generate study Generate study questions questions Given experimenter- generated questions generated questions Given experimenter- Questions + answers Generate student questions with correct answers Given experimenter- generated questions and answers

  22. Question generation and learning 22 210 Introduction to Psychology students studied a 2,300 word text The work of being a bee Students prepared for a test given two days later One control group (left to their own devices) Six treatment groups Four types of student-generated questions essay/fill-in-the-blank/multiple-choice/true-false 30-item test (15 multiple-choice, 15 fill-in-the blank) Items classified as target / non-target Foos, Mora and Tkacz (1994)

  23. Test scores 23 Outline Questions Questions and answers 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Experimenter Student Experimenter Student Non-target Target

  24. Possible confounds 24 Student-generated material may have focused on material tested with easier items Experimenter-generated materials targeted more items, resulting in less time to study each item Retention intervals may have been shorter for students preparing their own materials All experimenter-generated study questions were essay questions, while some student-generated questions were not

  25. Experiment 2 25 50 general psychology students from 2 US colleges Studied same text as experiment 1 for 30 minutes Half asked to generate study questions as they read Half given study questions generated by others

  26. Experiment 2 results 26 Received Generated 100% 90% 86% 80% 70% 72% 60% 50% 54% 54% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Non-targeted items Targeted items Foos, Mora, and Tkacz (1994)

  27. 27 Engineering effective discussions, activities, and classroom tasks that elicit evidence of learning

  28. Eliciting evidence 28 Two good reasons to ask a question To cause thinking To collect evidence to inform instruction No hands up (except to ask a question) Choose students at random No opting out Avoiding questions altogether

  29. Alternatives to questioning Declarative statement Conservatives believe in privatisation But the Labour Party also believes in privatisation Reflective re-statement Labour, Conservative and Liberal Democrats believe in X So you re saying that all three major political parties believe in X Statement of mind X and Y seem contradictory. I don t see how you can believe in both Statement of interest I m interested in hearing a little more about X Student referral Your views contradict the views of the last speaker Teacher opinion That certainly has(n t) been my experience

  30. Alternatives to questions Student questions speaker question Can you express your confusion in the form of a question? class question Does any one else have a question about what X has been saying? discussion question What kinds of questions should we be thinking about now Signals phatics & fillers pass (to another speaker) Silences deliberate non-deliberate Dillon (1988)

  31. Eliciting evidence 31 Two good reasons to ask a question To cause thinking To collect evidence to inform instruction No hands up (except to ask a question) Choose students at random No opting out Avoiding questions altogether All-student response systems Decision-driven data collection Finger voting, dry erase boards, exit tickets Two kinds of questions Discussion questions Diagnostic questions

  32. 32 Eliciting evidence: Kinds of questions

  33. Discussion questions: Science Ice-cubes are added to a glass of water. What happens to the level of the water as the ice-cubes melt? A. The level of the water drops B. The level of the water stays the same C. The level of the water increases D. You need more information to be sure

  34. Discussion questions: History In which year did World War II begin? A. 1919 B. 1938 C. 1939 D. 1940 E. 1941

  35. Diagnostic questions: Psychology 35 Which of the following is the most important difference between the theories of Piaget and Vygotsky? A. Piaget places greater importance on the role of conservation in cognitive development B. Vygotsky places greater importance on the role of cultural artifacts in cognitive development. C. Vygotsky did not believe in distinct stages of cognitive development. D. Piaget was a social constructivist while Vygotsky placed greater emphasis on cultural-historical activity theory

  36. Developing good questions 36 1. Start by identifying a hinge-point in a lesson plan a point where you need to collect evidence from students in order to decide what to do next 2. Identify any relevant misconceptions a. by discussion with colleagues b. by asking the question as an exit-pass 3. Develop the question 4. Ask colleagues to look for possible false-positives 5. Trial the question with students, asking them to explain their choices

  37. Cognitive rules Responses A Correct B Incorrect C D E 37

  38. What makes a good hinge question? 38 Essential: 1. In no case do incorrect and correct cognitive rules lead to the same response Desirable (in order of priority): 1. Different incorrect cognitive rules lead to different responses 2. Different correct cognitive rules lead to different responses Two approaches to question writing Distractor-driven multiple-choice questions Multiple correct solutions

  39. Multiple correct responses 39 20 cm What is the area of the semi-circle? 2 p 2 p 20 2 p 20 20 2 p 10 10 2 20 2 50p A. B. C. D. E.

  40. 40 Providing feedback that moves learners forward

  41. Origins and antecedents 41 Feedback (Wiener, 1948) Developing range-finders for anti-aircraft guns Effective action requires a closed system within which Actions taken within the system are evaluated Evaluation of the actions leads to modification of future actions Two kinds of loops Positive (bad: leads to collapse or explosive growth) Negative (good: leads to stability) Feedback is information about the gap between the actual level and the reference level of a system parameter which is used to alter the gap in some way (Ramaprasad, 1983 p. 4) Feedback and instructional correctives (Bloom)

  42. Discussion 42 Are the differences between how the term feedback is used in engineering and education important? How do you feel about the term feed-forward ?

  43. Feedback in psychology 43 Feedback is any of the numerous procedures that are used to tell a learner if an instructional response is right or wrong (Kulhavy, 1977 p. 211) Key debate: confirmation vs. correction it is no surprise that scholars have worked overtime to fit the round peg of feedback into the square hole of reinforcement. Unfortunately, this stoic faith in feedback- as-reinforcement has all too often led researchers to overlook or disregard alternate explanations for their data. One does not have to look far for articles that devote themselves to explaining why their data failed to meet operant expectations rather than to trying to make sense out of what they found. (op cit. p. 213)

  44. an evolving concept (Brookhart, 2007) 44 Conceptualization Information about the learning process that teachers can use for instructional decisions and students can use to improve performance which motivates students Source(s) Scriven (1967) Bloom, Hastings and Madaus (1971) Sadler (1983; 1989) Natriello (1987); Crooks (1988); Black and Wiliam (1998); Brookhart (1997)

  45. Kinds of feedback (Nyquist, 2003) Weaker feedback only Knowledge of results (KoR) Feedback only KoR + clear goals or knowledge of correct results (KCR) Weak formative assessment KCR+ explanation (KCR+e) Moderate formative assessment (KCR+e) + specific actions for gap reduction Strong formative assessment (KCR+e) + activity

  46. Effects of formative assessment (HE) Kind of feedback Count Effect Weaker feedback only 31 0.14 Feedback only 48 0.36 Weaker formative assessment 49 0.26 Moderate formative assessment 41 0.39 Strong formative assessment 16 0.56 Nyquist (2003)

  47. Wise feedback: Study 1 44 7th grade students in 3 social studies classrooms Students wrote an essay about a personal hero Students received critical feedback plus a note Control: I m giving you these comments so that you ll have feedback on your paper. Treatment: I m giving you these comments because I have very high expectations and I know that you can reach them. Double-blind RCT design Students given a week to resubmit Yeager, Purdie-Vaughns, Garcia, Apfel, Brzustoski, Master, Hessert, Williams, & Cohen (2014)

  48. Student revisions Control Treatment 100% 90% 87% 80% Percent revising essay 70% 72% 60% 62% 50% 40% 30% 20% 17% 10% 0% White African-American Students

  49. Wise feedback: Study 2 Same as study 1, except Different students Students are required to resubmit essays

  50. Impact on achievement Control Treatment 14 12 12.21 Score on revised essay 11.91 11.25 10 9.45 8 6 4 2 0 White African-American Students

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