Exploring Non-Cognitive Factors as Predictors of Student Success in Higher Education

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This study delves into whether utilizing an assessment instrument measuring non-cognitive attributes can predict student success at a large, urban, public university with a significant Under-Represented Minority population. The research focuses on non-academic factors like academic self-efficacy, resiliency, and social comfort as predictors of retention probability and academic success. The Student Strength Inventory (SSI) and its constructs are analyzed, alongside demographic data on students surveyed at the beginning of the fall semester in 2014. The administration also details the breakdown of under-represented minority students, first-generation college students, and foreign students.

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Gabriela Garcia John Briggs

Explore whether using an assessment instrument which measures non-cognitive attributes is a predictor of student success as opposed to other variables.

Population Large, urban, public University Large Under Represented Minority (URM) (> 30%) ~40% need remediation in English and/or Math

What are non-cognitive factors? Assessment of college readiness The student s ability to navigate the demands of the college environment Ability to persist and graduate Sommerfeld, A. (2011) Recasting non-cognitive factors in college readiness as what they truly are: Non-academic factors. Journal of College Admissions, Fall, 18-22.

Student Strength Inventory (SSI) Campus Labs Instrument 48 scaled items 6 non-cognitive constructs Constructs Cronbach Alpha (.81 -.90) Predictive ability

Constructs Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment

Constructs Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort

Constructs Retention Probability Academic Success

Administration Surveyed First-Time Freshman (FTF) Undergraduate Transfer (UGT) Beginning of 1st Semester (Fall 2014) Solicited through the campus notification system Self-selected 24% participation rate FTF = 832 UGT = 852

Administration Under-represented Minority Non-under-represented Minority URM includes Native American, Black, and Hispanic N % 541 32% 1150 68% Foreign Student 162 10% Native Student 1529 90% N % Foreign includes students with residency outside the U.S. Female 935 55% Male 756 45% N % First generation includes students who are the first in their family to attend college. First-generation College Student Non-first-generation College Student N % 508 30% 1183 70%

Administration

Administration At the end of the survey Score ranges low, moderate, or high Campus resources Class resources

Example of Recommendation: Educational Commitment High: Visit the Career Center (http://www.xxxx.edu/careercenter) to identify career options for your college degree. Talk to professors in your department or your academic advisor about undergraduate research or internship opportunities in your major area of interest.

Example of Recommendation: Educational Commitment Moderate Talk with your academic advisor or visit the Career Center (http://www.xxxx.edu/careercenter) to identify potential careers for individual with a college degree. Speak with your professors or individuals in your field(s) of interest about the value of a college education.

Example of Recommendation: Educational Commitment Low Talk with your academic advisor about the wide range of career options for an individual with a college degree or go to the Career Center s website (http://www.xxxx.edu/careercenter) and explore different majors and careers. Speak with your professors or individuals in your field(s) of interest about the value of a college education.

Other Treatments None No follow-up No contact from staff, faculty or administrators

Measures of Student Success Persistence Failure Cumulative Units Cumulative GPA

Bivariate Correlation: Persistence vs. SSI Constructs First-Time Freshmen Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .043 .211 .050 .146 -.004 .899 .035 .317 -.029 .399 -.070* .043 .056 .105 -.040 .253 Undergraduate Transfers Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .029 .390 .032 .347 .093** .007 .000 .992 -.031 .370 .031 .358 .052 .126 .016 .637 All Students Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .036 .138 .042 .085 .043 .074 .017 .492 -.030 .219 -.017 .478 .053* .028 -.011 .648

Bivariate Correlation: Failure vs. SSI Constructs First-Time Freshmen Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) -.075* .031 -.083* .017 .004 .900 -.118** .001 -.040 .254 .136** .000 .002 .951 .040 .244 Undergraduate Transfers Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) -.065 .057 -.120** .000 -.080* .019 -.144** .000 -.019 .575 -.007 .827 .015 .657 .008 .824 All Students Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) -.061* .012 -.091** .000 -.041 .088 -.133** .000 -.031 .200 .059* .015 .014 .574 .023 .342

Bivariate Correlation: Cumulative Units vs. SSI Constructs First-Time Freshmen Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .170** .000 .190** .000 .055 .110 -.002 .952 -.050 .151 -.114** .001 -.057 .103 -.101** .004 Undergraduate Transfers Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .093** .006 .098** .004 .127** .000 .052 .128 .018 .600 .065 .056 .108** .002 .037 .280 All Students Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .130** .000 .145** .000 .091** .000 .027 .269 -.013 .600 -.017 .477 .035 .150 -.028 .255

Bivariate Correlation: Cumulative GPA vs. SSI Constructs First-Time Freshmen Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .121** .000 .143** .000 .004 .903 .124** .000 .001 .967 -.162** .000 -.057 .099 -.092** .008 Undergraduate Transfers Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .118** .001 .187** .000 .136** .000 .203** .000 .062 .069 -.017 .621 -.053 .122 -.037 .284 All Students Retention Probability Academic Success Academic Self- Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Campus Engagement Resiliency Social Comfort Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) .089** .000 .142** .000 .088** .000 .173** .000 .041 .089 -.072** .003 -.070** .004 -.060* .014

Demographic/Academic Variables First-time Freshmen Undergraduate Transfer Under-represented Minorities Under-represented Minorities Gender Gender First Generation First Generation Pell Eligibility Pell Eligibility Transfer GPA High School GPA Housing Indicator Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Foreign Student Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator

Regression Standardize the independent variables Two step regression SSI Construct(s) SSI Construct(s) & Demographic/Academic Variables

Regression Dependent Variable: Measure of Student Success Model 1: Retention Probability (SSI) Model 2: Retention Probability (SSI) and Demographic/Academic Variables Model 3: SSI Constructs Model 4: SSI Constructs and Demographic/Academic Variables

Logistic Regression Persistence Failure

Logistic Regression Received at least one failing grade in either Fall 2014 or Spring 2015 semester Did not receive any failing grades in either Fall 2014 or Spring 2015 semester N 301 1390 % 18% 82% Persisted into the Fall 2015 semester 1510 89% Did not persist into the Fall 2015 semester 181 11% N %

Linear Regression Cumulative Units Cumulative GPA Standard Deviation 6.606 0.773 Mean 21.72 2.98 Cumulative Units Cumulative GPA

First-time Freshmen Models Persistence Model 3 Model 4 Model 1 Model 2 Coeff 2.22 .16 -.01 .29 -.28 -.30 .37 -.16 Sig .000 .161 .975 .042 .045 .030 .005 .264 Coeff 2.34 0.09 -0.08 0.21 -0.24 -0.28 0.41 -0.03 -0.13 0.05 -0.06 0.10 0.48 -0.10 -0.01 -0.24 0.08 Sig .000 .466 .586 .166 .104 .056 .004 .836 .302 .717 .679 .455 .000 .408 .946 .049 .555 Coeff 2.13 .14 Sig .000 .211 Coeff 2.28 .06 -.15 .15 -.04 .13 .50 -.08 -.01 -.19 .12 Sig .000 .607 .221 .220 .746 .354 .000 .522 .918 .114 .398 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N 832 Effect Size Odds Ratio 0.10 0.14 0.07 Campus Engagement High School GPA Remediation 1.509 1.614 .784 832

Undergraduate Transfer Models Persistence Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Coeff 2.12 .10 Sig .000 .389 Coeff 2.23 .05 -.18 -.27 -.05 -.04 .37 .09 -.05 Sig .000 .648 .120 .024 .650 .732 .002 .502 .710 Coeff 2.20 .13 .49 -.18 -.33 -.02 .15 -.09 Sig .000 .441 .001 .302 .016 .876 .236 .533 Coeff 2.28 0.06 0.38 -0.19 -0.23 0.01 0.17 -0.02 -0.17 -0.22 -0.05 -0.05 0.35 0.05 -0.08 Sig .000 .731 .014 .293 .102 .931 .197 .870 .146 .076 .656 .686 .005 .674 .539 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility Transfer GPA Housing Indicator Foreign Student Indicator N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility Transfer GPA Housing Indicator Foreign Student Indicator N 852 852 Effect Size Odds Ratio 0.08 0.10 Academic Self-Efficacy Transfer GPA 1.459 1.425

First-time Freshmen Models Failure in Class Model 3 Model 4 Model 1 Model 2 Coeff -1.57 -.17 .09 -.50 .00 .57 -.02 -.02 Sig .000 .059 .428 .000 .994 .000 .866 .854 Coeff -1.71 -0.11 0.16 -0.40 -0.07 0.54 -0.07 -0.12 0.21 -0.10 0.20 0.06 -0.54 0.19 -0.07 0.02 -0.01 Sig .000 .286 .211 .001 .581 .000 .550 .333 .037 .327 .063 .599 .000 .061 .468 .884 .953 Coeff -1.46 -.19 Sig .000 .031 Coeff -1.63 -.13 .19 -.26 .17 .07 -.56 .23 -.05 -.05 .02 Sig .000 .167 .045 .008 .104 .532 .000 .016 .596 .616 .838 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N 832 Effect Size Odds Ratio 0.11 0.15 0.07 0.19 Academic Engagement Resiliency Under-represented Minorities High School GPA .670 1.713 1.234 .583 832

Undergraduate Transfer Models Failure in Class Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Coeff -1.62 -.18 Sig .000 .057 Coeff -1.78 -.12 .17 -.04 -.09 .20 -.64 -.11 .03 Sig .000 .220 .083 .691 .370 .052 .000 .275 .790 Coeff -1.68 -.12 -.19 -.38 .20 .14 .08 .08 Sig .000 .335 .129 .006 .081 .235 .442 .490 Coeff -1.81 -0.09 -0.05 -0.31 0.09 0.06 0.05 0.00 0.17 -0.01 -0.11 0.20 -0.59 -0.12 0.00 Sig .000 .518 .701 .038 .476 .621 .656 .982 .091 .939 .298 .057 .000 .250 .998 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility Transfer GPA Housing Indicator Foreign Student Indicator N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility Transfer GPA Housing Indicator Foreign Student Indicator N 852 Effect Size Odds Ratio 0.07 0.18 Academic Self-Efficacy Transfer GPA .737 .555 852

First-time Freshmen Models Cumulative Units Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Coeff 21.72 1.29 .84 -.08 -.52 -.91 -.18 -.37 Sig .000 .000 .002 .769 .055 .000 .489 .175 Coeff 21.71 0.39 0.27 0.26 -0.28 -0.82 0.44 -0.13 -0.84 0.07 -0.11 -0.07 1.22 0.00 0.18 -2.91 -0.05 Sig .000 .051 .250 .275 .219 .000 .056 .582 .000 .723 .613 .744 .000 .983 .378 .000 .813 Coeff 21.72 1.08 Sig .000 .000 Coeff 21.71 .43 -.88 .26 -.09 -.09 1.27 -.04 .17 -2.89 -.04 Sig .000 .020 .000 .166 .682 .681 .000 .840 .407 .000 .864 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N 832 R2 Model 2: .337 832 Model 4: .352

Undergraduate Transfer Models Cumulative Units Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Coeff 21.73 .63 Sig .000 .006 Coeff 21.74 .53 -.42 -.43 -.35 .45 1.08 .82 .58 Sig .000 .021 .086 .066 .145 .068 .000 .000 .020 Coeff 21.73 .68 .91 -.37 -.49 .04 .71 -.32 Sig .000 .039 .003 .283 .090 .877 .008 .267 Coeff 21.74 0.53 0.62 -0.49 -0.12 0.22 0.59 -0.14 -0.44 -0.29 -0.34 0.42 1.06 0.76 0.53 Sig .000 .104 .045 .162 .682 .448 .026 .627 .070 .231 .165 .092 .000 .001 .037 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility Transfer GPA Housing Indicator Foreign Student Indicator N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility Transfer GPA Housing Indicator Foreign Student Indicator N 852 R2 852 Model 2: .066 Model 4: .082

First-time Freshmen Models Cumulative GPA Model 3 Model 4 Model 1 Model 2 Coeff 2.90 .10 .01 .15 -.04 -.18 -.02 -.02 Sig .000 .000 .687 .000 .266 .000 .439 .549 Coeff 2.90 0.05 -0.02 0.12 -0.01 -0.16 0.00 0.02 -0.14 0.02 0.00 -0.06 0.22 -0.05 0.03 -0.05 0.01 Sig .000 .081 .565 .000 .820 .000 .945 .535 .000 .465 .961 .024 .000 .051 .263 .052 .616 Coeff 2.90 .09 Sig .000 .000 Coeff 2.90 .05 -.14 .06 .00 -.07 .23 -.07 .03 -.04 .00 Sig .000 .047 .000 .012 .894 .012 .000 .004 .367 .121 .960 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N 832 R2 Model 2: .194 832 Model 4: .230

Undergraduate Transfer Models Cumulative GPA Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Coeff 3.06 .09 Sig .000 .001 Coeff 3.06 .05 -.05 .03 -.01 -.03 .35 .00 -.03 Sig .000 .060 .057 .256 .841 .230 .000 .869 .324 Coeff 3.06 .09 .10 .12 -.05 -.08 -.06 -.04 Sig .000 .020 .003 .002 .143 .008 .044 .168 Coeff 3.06 0.06 0.03 0.05 0.01 -0.03 -0.05 0.01 -0.05 0.02 0.00 -0.03 0.33 0.01 -0.01 Sig .000 .067 .410 .156 .691 .364 .063 .744 .057 .509 .968 .306 .000 .709 .784 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility Transfer GPA Housing Indicator Foreign Student Indicator N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility Transfer GPA Housing Indicator Foreign Student Indicator N 852 R2 852 Model 2: .236 Model 4: .253

Other Groups Science, Technology, Engineering, & Mathematics (STEM) Freshmen Students Native Freshmen Students

Freshmen STEM Students Cumulative GPA Model 3 Model 4 Model 1 Model 2 Coeff 2.72 .15 -.09 .01 .00 -.02 .03 -.11 Sig .000 .001 .114 .839 .949 .784 .692 .074 Coeff 2.66 0.12 -0.10 -0.02 0.00 0.01 0.06 -0.09 -0.10 0.02 0.03 -0.06 0.27 -0.12 0.03 -0.01 0.05 Sig .000 .008 .086 .686 .982 .818 .355 .148 .053 .671 .577 .272 .000 .006 .788 .867 .351 Coeff 2.73 .10 Sig .000 .015 Coeff 2.64 .08 -.12 .01 .03 -.06 .28 -.13 .07 -.01 .05 Sig .000 .066 .012 .819 .533 .285 .000 .004 .543 .862 .406 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N 832 R2 Model 2: .238 Model 4: .274 832

Freshmen STEM Students Cumulative Units Model 3 Model 4 Model 1 Model 2 Coeff 21.98 1.28 -.37 -.16 .20 -.36 -.30 -.83 Sig .000 .000 .456 .746 .695 .490 .582 .112 Coeff 21.91 0.67 -0.36 -0.14 -0.08 -0.06 0.48 -0.86 -0.89 0.72 0.14 0.07 1.28 -0.51 0.55 -2.46 0.70 Sig .000 .055 .418 .763 .855 .902 .342 .066 .025 .085 .735 .869 .004 .148 .518 .000 .114 Coeff 21.90 1.05 Sig .000 .002 Coeff 21.85 .53 -1.06 .70 .17 .13 1.31 -.57 .77 -2.46 .72 Sig .000 .099 .006 .070 .697 .753 .003 .107 .364 .000 .095 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation Foreign Student Indicator N 832 R2 Model 2: .330 Model 4: .354 832

Freshmen Native Students Cumulative GPA Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Coeff 2.88 .07 Sig .000 .002 Coeff 3.07 .04 -.16 .06 -.01 -.07 .29 -.07 -.15 -.01 Sig .000 .099 .000 .010 .782 .018 .000 .003 .111 .621 Coeff 2.88 .02 .16 -.05 -.20 -.03 -.01 .00 Sig .000 .001 .560 .000 .171 .000 .320 .749 Coeff 3.05 0.00 0.11 -0.01 -0.17 -0.01 0.03 -0.15 0.02 -0.01 -0.06 0.28 -0.05 -0.15 -0.02 0.00 Sig .000 .085 .979 .001 .689 .000 .654 .390 .000 .388 .692 .044 .000 .030 .105 .470 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation N 832 R2 Model 2: .232 832 Model 4: .270

Freshmen Native Students Cumulative Units Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Coeff 21.74 .79 Sig .000 .000 Coeff 24.04 .34 -1.04 .24 -.15 -.06 1.59 -.08 -1.46 -2.21 Sig .000 .040 .000 .216 .487 .775 .000 .668 .045 .000 Coeff 21.79 .93 -.09 -.64 -.98 -.16 -.39 .00 Sig .000 .000 .001 .743 .030 .000 .579 .164 Coeff 24.02 0.32 0.15 -0.25 -0.91 0.39 -0.13 -0.98 0.04 -0.17 -0.04 1.56 -0.03 -1.55 -2.20 0.00 Sig .000 .056 .183 .550 .317 .000 .119 .589 .000 .855 .418 .858 .000 .853 .032 .000 Constant Retention Probability Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation N Constant Academic Success Academic Self-Efficacy Academic Engagement Educational Commitment Resiliency Campus Engagement Social Comfort Under-represented Minorities Gender First Generation Pell Eligibility High School GPA Housing Indicator Recent HS Grad Indicator Remediation N 832 R2 Model 2: .339 832 Model 4: .356

Conclusion Non-cognitive provide little or no additional information in predicting student success for this institution Predictions can be made with academic/demographic variables

Caveats Treatment of participants. Recommendation(s) could have made the difference, especially for low performing students > 50% of the students tested were Undergraduate Transfers Large segment of URM students, the interpretation of questions might be subject to cultural perspectives

Caveats Large segment first generation students. Complete software package was not implemented. Advisors/Faculty did not reach out to students Campus services did not reach out to students SSI was used as a stand alone tool