Semantics: The Study of Meaning

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1.

Semantics

2.

Word Meaning

i. Semantic Fields

ii. Synonyms

iii. Opposites

iv. Inclusion

3. Semantic Fuzziness

4. Sentence meaning

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The linguistic study of meaning is called semantics.

The linguistic study of meaning is called semantics.

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Semantics can be defined as a branch of linguistics that

Semantics can be defined as a branch of linguistics that

deals with meaning; it seeks to understand why certain

deals with meaning; it seeks to understand why certain

words and constructions can be combined together in a

words and constructions can be combined together in a

semantically acceptable way, while others cannot.

semantically acceptable way, while others cannot.

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Humans are able to distinguish meaningful sentences

Humans are able to distinguish meaningful sentences

from contradictory or meaningless ones. They can also

from contradictory or meaningless ones. They can also

recognize sentences which have similar meanings, and

recognize sentences which have similar meanings, and

can detect ambiguous sentences.

can detect ambiguous sentences.

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A linguist who is studying meaning tries to understand

A linguist who is studying meaning tries to understand

why certain words and constructions can be combined

why certain words and constructions can be combined

together in a semantically acceptable way, while others

together in a semantically acceptable way, while others

cannot.

cannot.

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Consider the following sentences:

Consider the following sentences:

1.

My brother is a bachelor.

My brother is a bachelor.

2.

! My brother is a spinster.

! My brother is a spinster.

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A linguist studying semantics would also like to know why

A linguist studying semantics would also like to know why

anyone who knows a language can recognize certain

anyone who knows a language can recognize certain

phrases and sentences as having similar meanings.

phrases and sentences as having similar meanings.

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Consider the examples below:

Consider the examples below:

1.

I am fatigued and I wish to get some sleep.

I am fatigued and I wish to get some sleep.

2.

I ’m tired and I want to go to bed.

I ’m tired and I want to go to bed.

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Linguistic meaning involves two levels: lexical meaning

Linguistic meaning involves two levels: lexical meaning

and sentence meaning.

and sentence meaning.

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Linguists studying semantics  want to understand two

Linguists studying semantics  want to understand two

types of relationships :

types of relationships :

1.

word-to-word relationship

word-to-word relationship

2.

Word-to-world relationship

Word-to-world relationship

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Linguists are interested primarily in the relationship of

Linguists are interested primarily in the relationship of

words (lexical items )to one another, and only secondarily

words (lexical items )to one another, and only secondarily

in their relationship to the world.

in their relationship to the world.

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 There are three preliminary points that needs to be

 There are three preliminary points that needs to be

clarified when studying lexical meaning.

clarified when studying lexical meaning.

1.

The study of lexical meaning is mainly concerned with

The study of lexical meaning is mainly concerned with

content words rather than function words.

content words rather than function words.

2.

The focus is often on descriptive meaning of words

The focus is often on descriptive meaning of words

rather than their connotative meanings.

rather than their connotative meanings.

3.

We must be aware that meaning is double-faced, as one

We must be aware that meaning is double-faced, as one

element of the word meaning is part of a language

element of the word meaning is part of a language

system, but it is used to refer to things in the outside

system, but it is used to refer to things in the outside

world.

world.

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Linguists believe that the best way to deal with lexical

Linguists believe that the best way to deal with lexical

meaning in a language system is by identifying the

meaning in a language system is by identifying the

semantic relationship between different lexical items

semantic relationship between different lexical items

(words).

(words).

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These relationships include:

These relationships include:

1.

semantic fields,

semantic fields,

2.

Synonymy

Synonymy

3.

Opposites (antonym)

Opposites (antonym)

4.

Classification (inclusion)

Classification (inclusion)

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Each language cuts up the world in different ways, thus,

Each language cuts up the world in different ways, thus,

each language has different lexical structure.

each language has different lexical structure.

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It is important to deal with the lexical structure of a

It is important to deal with the lexical structure of a

language rather than with isolated words.

language rather than with isolated words.

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This lexical structure can be divided into different

This lexical structure can be divided into different

semantic fields.

semantic fields.

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Semantic fields are different across languages.

Semantic fields are different across languages.

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Compare the semantic field of family relation in Arabic

Compare the semantic field of family relation in Arabic

and English.

and English.

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A semantic field is a group of lexical items that seem to

A semantic field is a group of lexical items that seem to

belong together in a lexical structure.

belong together in a lexical structure.

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Each lexical item (word) in a semantic field can be

Each lexical item (word) in a semantic field can be

defined by its relation to the other members of the group.

defined by its relation to the other members of the group.

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Semantic fields can give a useful picture as to how a

Semantic fields can give a useful picture as to how a

particular semantic area is divided up.

particular semantic area is divided up.

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It would be wrong, however, to assume that lexical items

It would be wrong, however, to assume that lexical items

cover an entire field like a smooth mosaic. In fact, there

cover an entire field like a smooth mosaic. In fact, there

are plenty of gaps and overlaps.

are plenty of gaps and overlaps.

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To cope with overlap in semantic fields, linguists hoped that

To cope with overlap in semantic fields, linguists hoped that

lexical meaning might be possible to be deconstructed into

lexical meaning might be possible to be deconstructed into

its basic elements in a similar fashion to phonemes in

its basic elements in a similar fashion to phonemes in

phonology.

phonology.

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Therefore, they proposed a method known as ‘componential

Therefore, they proposed a method known as ‘componential

analysis’ to split up the components of lexical items to cope

analysis’ to split up the components of lexical items to cope

with the problem of overlap in semantic fields.

with the problem of overlap in semantic fields.

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However, it is somewhat inaccurate to speak of the meaning

However, it is somewhat inaccurate to speak of the meaning

of words as being ‘composed’ out of a set of separate

of words as being ‘composed’ out of a set of separate

components.

components.

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Synonymy is another lexical relation that clarifies how lexical

Synonymy is another lexical relation that clarifies how lexical

items can be linked to gather.

items can be linked to gather.

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Lexical items can be regarded as synonymous if they can be

Lexical items can be regarded as synonymous if they can be

used interchangeably without altering the meaning of an

used interchangeably without altering the meaning of an

utterance.

utterance.

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By studying interchangeable items, a linguist can build up a

By studying interchangeable items, a linguist can build up a

picture of those sentences with similar meanings.

picture of those sentences with similar meanings.

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Perfect synonyms are very rare, because it is very unusual for

Perfect synonyms are very rare, because it is very unusual for

two lexical items to have exactly the same meanings in all

two lexical items to have exactly the same meanings in all

contexts.

contexts.

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Consider the following synonymous pair of word (get & obtain)

Consider the following synonymous pair of word (get & obtain)

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Opposites refer to different words that are in an incompatible

Opposites refer to different words that are in an incompatible

binary relationship.

binary relationship.

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Opposites can be of three kinds.

Opposites can be of three kinds.

1.

Absolute opposites: wherein the negative of one implies the

Absolute opposites: wherein the negative of one implies the

other (live vs. die).

other (live vs. die).

2.

Relative (not absolute) opposites which are relative to some

Relative (not absolute) opposites which are relative to some

standards (big vs. small).

standards (big vs. small).

3.

Converse opposites in which the choice of one opposite

Converse opposites in which the choice of one opposite

rather than another depends on the angle from which you

rather than another depends on the angle from which you

view the situation being described (give vs. take).

view the situation being described (give vs. take).

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Inclusion (classification) is another lexical relationship to study

Inclusion (classification) is another lexical relationship to study

lexical meaning.

lexical meaning.

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Inclusion is a relationship between different lexical items in

Inclusion is a relationship between different lexical items in

which these lexical items are arranged in a hierarchical

which these lexical items are arranged in a hierarchical

structure.

structure.

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Inclusion enables us to understand the multiple links between

Inclusion enables us to understand the multiple links between

different words.

different words.

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The advantages of inclusion are:

The advantages of inclusion are:

1.

It enables us to understand the multiple links between

It enables us to understand the multiple links between

different words,

different words,

2.

 and it can sometimes be expressed by means of logical

 and it can sometimes be expressed by means of logical

notation, so allowing us to be explicit in our description.

notation, so allowing us to be explicit in our description.

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Indeed, a few linguists have claimed that the entire

Indeed, a few linguists have claimed that the entire

meaning of a word can be expressed in terms of its

meaning of a word can be expressed in terms of its

logical relationships with other words.

logical relationships with other words.

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The lexical relationships we have discussed so far assume that

The lexical relationships we have discussed so far assume that

words have an agreed-upon meaning which we can discover

words have an agreed-upon meaning which we can discover

and describe.

and describe.

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This is not always the case, as there are some words that are

This is not always the case, as there are some words that are

characterized by fuzzy boundaries. That is, they do not have

characterized by fuzzy boundaries. That is, they do not have

well defined meaning.

well defined meaning.

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Fuzziness and family resemblance provide problems for

Fuzziness and family resemblance provide problems for

understanding lexical meaning, because they make it hard to

understanding lexical meaning, because they make it hard to

categorize lexical items in clear-cut lexical relationships. These

categorize lexical items in clear-cut lexical relationships. These

problems indicate that it is impossible to set down fixed

problems indicate that it is impossible to set down fixed

meanings for all words.

meanings for all words.

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Fuzziness, then, means that words often have fuzzy edges or no

Fuzziness, then, means that words often have fuzzy edges or no

clear boundaries.

clear boundaries.

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Family resemblance means that a word, such as furniture, covers

Family resemblance means that a word, such as furniture, covers

a whole range of things, which share characteristics with one

a whole range of things, which share characteristics with one

another, as do members of a family. Yet it may be impossible to

another, as do members of a family. Yet it may be impossible to

think up a set of characteristics which describes them all.

think up a set of characteristics which describes them all.

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Humans tend to understand and memorize meaning in terms of

Humans tend to understand and memorize meaning in terms of

prototypes.

prototypes.

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Prototypes represent idealized images of concepts or items in

Prototypes represent idealized images of concepts or items in

the world; thinking of lexical meaning in terms of prototypes is

the world; thinking of lexical meaning in terms of prototypes is

what gives linguistic meaning its flexibility.

what gives linguistic meaning its flexibility.

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Humans do not have fixed meanings in their minds; they mostly

Humans do not have fixed meanings in their minds; they mostly

work from prototypes or typical examples and build for

work from prototypes or typical examples and build for

themselves mental models (or representations) which

themselves mental models (or representations) which

incorporate them in order to represent and talk about the world

incorporate them in order to represent and talk about the world

around them.

around them.

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The term ‘representation’ does not only covers subconscious or

The term ‘representation’ does not only covers subconscious or

inherited representations, but also those presentation  that are

inherited representations, but also those presentation  that are

consciously put across by, say, politicians, when they invent

consciously put across by, say, politicians, when they invent

euphemisms to manipulate their audience.

euphemisms to manipulate their audience.

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 For instance, the expression “pin-point strikes” can lead people

 For instance, the expression “pin-point strikes” can lead people

into believing that bombs can be precisely dropped on particular

into believing that bombs can be precisely dropped on particular

targets.

targets.

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Lexical meaning of words and the way they are combined together

Lexical meaning of words and the way they are combined together

tells us quite a lot about the meaning of sentences, since sentences

tells us quite a lot about the meaning of sentences, since sentences

are individual words, linked together by means of the syntax.

are individual words, linked together by means of the syntax.

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The amalgamation of lexical meaning and syntax does not only

The amalgamation of lexical meaning and syntax does not only

enable us to reject anomalous sentences, it also allows us to make

enable us to reject anomalous sentences, it also allows us to make

deductions about normal sentences. These deductions are called

deductions about normal sentences. These deductions are called

entailments.

entailments.

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Entailment refers to the deduction of extra meaning that is not

Entailment refers to the deduction of extra meaning that is not

explicitly included in the lexical items (words) used in the sentence.

explicitly included in the lexical items (words) used in the sentence.

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The logical relationship of entailment can enable us to understand why

The logical relationship of entailment can enable us to understand why

some sentences are contradictory.

some sentences are contradictory.

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Some semanticists hope that formal logical systems will, one day,

Some semanticists hope that formal logical systems will, one day,

handle semantic representations , as well as the meaning of sentences,

handle semantic representations , as well as the meaning of sentences,

adequately.

adequately.

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Formal logical systems can (in theory) provide formulae for the

Formal logical systems can (in theory) provide formulae for the

representation of the sentences of any language in order to:

representation of the sentences of any language in order to:

1.

show the logical relationships which exist between and among

show the logical relationships which exist between and among

sentences,

sentences,

2. and to show certain ambiguities quite clearly.

2. and to show certain ambiguities quite clearly.