Reform Efforts in the Ottoman Empire: 18th and 19th Century Transformations

 
The Ottoman Empire and Europe,
1453-1922
Reform in the Nineteenth-Century
Ottoman Empire
 
James E. Baldwin
Department of History
University of Warwick
 
An Age of Reform
 
Tanzimat: lit. “putting in order,” generally
refers to political reforms undertaken
between 1839 and 1878
Longer process of reform began under Selim
III in late 18
th
 century and continued after
1878 under Abdulhamid II
Parallel process of reforms undertaken in
Egypt by Mehmed Ali and his successors
 
What was reformed?
 
Political reform: in some ways liberalizing, but with
the ultimate objective of centralizing power
Fiscal reform: to increase revenues
Military reform: to face external enemies such as
Russia and internal threats
Educational reform: to train bureaucrats to staff new
administrative institutions
Legal reform: to handle new concepts of
subjecthood and to effect centralization of power
Medical reform: to ensure a healthier and therefore
more productive population
 
Why reform?
 
Military weakness in late eighteenth century:
losses in Russo-Turkish wars of 1768-74 and
1787-92, French occupation of Egypt in 1798
Internal threat of separatist nationalism:
autonomy of Serbia in 1815 and independence
of Greece in 1830
Military reform at core of reform project; fiscal
reform and political reform closely related
 
Selim III
 
Selim III and the Nizam-i Cedid
 
Selim III becomes Sultan in 1789, midway
through Russo-Turkish War of 1787-92.
Selim’s attempt to introduce new hierarchy and
regular drill to Janissaries meets with
resistance
New army – the Nizam-i Cedid – introduced to
operate in parallel to Janissaries
Nizam-i Cedid incorporated innovations of the
European military revolution: full-time soldiers
with hierarchy, daily roll call and drill, subject
to strict discipline
 
Results of Selim III’s reforms
 
Nizam-i Cedid partial success: expensive,
difficult to recruit despite high salaries, but
performed well
Janissaries continue to resist reform, deposing
and assassinating Selim III in 1807
Sultan Mahmud II abolishes Janissaries in the
Auspicious Incident of 15 June 1826;
thousands of Janissaries in Istanbul killed
Mahmud II founds new regiment, the Asakir-i
Mansure-yi Muhammadiyye
 
Mahmud II
 
Mehmed Ali
 
Egyptian Military Reform
 
After expulsion of French, Mehmed Ali builds new
army modeled on both French army and Selim’s
Nizam-i Cedid
Also faced fierce resistance from entrenched
interests. Mehmed Ali responds with the Massacre
of the Mamluks on 1 March 1811
Early attempts to enslave Sudanese soldiers
replaced by conscription of Egyptian peasantry in
1820s
Mehmed Ali’s army very successful, assisting
Ottomans in Arabia and Greece, challenging them in
Syria and Anatolia
 
A Mamluk cavalier
 
Egyptian Military Reform
 
After expulsion of French, Mehmed Ali builds new
army modeled on both French army and Selim’s
Nizam-i Cedid
Also faced fierce resistance from entrenched
interests. Mehmed Ali responds with the Massacre
of the Mamluks on 1 March 1811
Early attempts to enslave Sudanese soldiers
replaced by conscription of Egyptian peasantry in
1820s
Mehmed Ali’s army very successful, assisting
Ottomans in Arabia and Greece, challenging them in
Syria and Anatolia
 
Massacre of the Mamluks, 1811
 
Egyptian Military Reform
 
After expulsion of French, Mehmed Ali builds new
army modeled on both French army and Selim’s
Nizam-i Cedid
Also faced fierce resistance from entrenched
interests. Mehmed Ali responds with the Massacre
of the Mamluks on 1 March 1811
Early attempts to enslave Sudanese soldiers
replaced by conscription of Egyptian peasantry in
1820s
Mehmed Ali’s army very successful, assisting
Ottomans in Arabia and Greece, challenging them in
Syria and Anatolia
 
Political reform
 
Major documents of Tanzimat: Hatt-i Şerif of
Gülhane (1839), Islahat Fermanı (1856),
Ottoman Constitution (1876)
Tanzimat reformers sought to conform to
European norms and to appease Christian
subjects
Equal status for Muslims, Christians and
Jews
Fostered national identity as “Ottomans”
 
Midhat Pasha
 
Ottoman Constitution of 1876
 
Introduced by the Young Ottomans and Midhat
Pasha, against opposition from Sultan
Abdulhamid II
Essentially autocratic constitution: Sultan
invested with full executive power, ministers
responsible to him
Check on Sultan’s power provided by bicameral
parliament: lower chamber indirectly elected,
upper chamber appointed
Abdulhamid II suspends constitution and
dissolves Parliament in 1878
 
Abdulhamid II
 
Abdulhamid the reformist
 
Mecelle-yi Ahkam-i ‘Aliyye
: code of sharīʿa law
introduced in 1877, that represents assertion
of government’s control of sharīʿa.
Traditionally, sharīʿa law’s authority came from
transnational community of jurists who
interpreted Koran and hadith.
Mecelle was authoritative, within the empire,
because the government made it so.
Educational reforms continued under
Abdulhamid: reformed schools to produce staff
for new courts and new bureaucracy.
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The Ottoman Empire underwent a series of reforms from the late 18th to the 19th century, aiming to centralize power, boost revenues, strengthen the military, educate bureaucrats, refine legal systems, and improve healthcare. Factors driving these reforms included military weaknesses, separatist national movements, and external threats. Sultan Selim III's attempts at military reform faced resistance from the Janissaries, leading to his deposition. The Nizam-i Cedid, his new army force, saw partial success but struggled with recruitment and opposition.

  • Ottoman Empire
  • Reform
  • 18th Century
  • 19th Century
  • Transformation

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  1. The Ottoman Empire and Europe, 1453-1922 Reform in the Nineteenth-Century Ottoman Empire James E. Baldwin Department of History University of Warwick

  2. An Age of Reform Tanzimat: lit. putting in order, generally refers to political reforms undertaken between 1839 and 1878 Longer process of reform began under Selim III in late 18thcentury and continued after 1878 under Abdulhamid II Parallel process of reforms undertaken in Egypt by Mehmed Ali and his successors

  3. What was reformed? Political reform: in some ways liberalizing, but with the ultimate objective of centralizing power Fiscal reform: to increase revenues Military reform: to face external enemies such as Russia and internal threats Educational reform: to train bureaucrats to staff new administrative institutions Legal reform: to handle new concepts of subjecthood and to effect centralization of power Medical reform: to ensure a healthier and therefore more productive population

  4. Why reform? Military weakness in late eighteenth century: losses in Russo-Turkish wars of 1768-74 and 1787-92, French occupation of Egypt in 1798 Internal threat of separatist nationalism: autonomy of Serbia in 1815 and independence of Greece in 1830 Military reform at core of reform project; fiscal reform and political reform closely related

  5. Selim III

  6. Selim III and the Nizam-i Cedid Selim III becomes Sultan in 1789, midway through Russo-Turkish War of 1787-92. Selim s attempt to introduce new hierarchy and regular drill to Janissaries meets with resistance New army the Nizam-i Cedid introduced to operate in parallel to Janissaries Nizam-i Cedid incorporated innovations of the European military revolution: full-time soldiers with hierarchy, daily roll call and drill, subject to strict discipline

  7. Results of Selim IIIs reforms Nizam-i Cedid partial success: expensive, difficult to recruit despite high salaries, but performed well Janissaries continue to resist reform, deposing and assassinating Selim III in 1807 Sultan Mahmud II abolishes Janissaries in the Auspicious Incident of 15 June 1826; thousands of Janissaries in Istanbul killed Mahmud II founds new regiment, the Asakir-i Mansure-yi Muhammadiyye

  8. Mahmud II

  9. Mehmed Ali

  10. Egyptian Military Reform After expulsion of French, Mehmed Ali builds new army modeled on both French army and Selim s Nizam-i Cedid Also faced fierce resistance from entrenched interests. Mehmed Ali responds with the Massacre of the Mamluks on 1 March 1811 Early attempts to enslave Sudanese soldiers replaced by conscription of Egyptian peasantry in 1820s Mehmed Ali s army very successful, assisting Ottomans in Arabia and Greece, challenging them in Syria and Anatolia

  11. A Mamluk cavalier

  12. Egyptian Military Reform After expulsion of French, Mehmed Ali builds new army modeled on both French army and Selim s Nizam-i Cedid Also faced fierce resistance from entrenched interests. Mehmed Ali responds with the Massacre of the Mamluks on 1 March 1811 Early attempts to enslave Sudanese soldiers replaced by conscription of Egyptian peasantry in 1820s Mehmed Ali s army very successful, assisting Ottomans in Arabia and Greece, challenging them in Syria and Anatolia

  13. Massacre of the Mamluks, 1811

  14. Egyptian Military Reform After expulsion of French, Mehmed Ali builds new army modeled on both French army and Selim s Nizam-i Cedid Also faced fierce resistance from entrenched interests. Mehmed Ali responds with the Massacre of the Mamluks on 1 March 1811 Early attempts to enslave Sudanese soldiers replaced by conscription of Egyptian peasantry in 1820s Mehmed Ali s army very successful, assisting Ottomans in Arabia and Greece, challenging them in Syria and Anatolia

  15. Political reform Major documents of Tanzimat: Hatt-i erif of G lhane (1839), Islahat Ferman (1856), Ottoman Constitution (1876) Tanzimat reformers sought to conform to European norms and to appease Christian subjects Equal status for Muslims, Christians and Jews Fostered national identity as Ottomans

  16. Midhat Pasha

  17. Ottoman Constitution of 1876 Introduced by the Young Ottomans and Midhat Pasha, against opposition from Sultan Abdulhamid II Essentially autocratic constitution: Sultan invested with full executive power, ministers responsible to him Check on Sultan s power provided by bicameral parliament: lower chamber indirectly elected, upper chamber appointed Abdulhamid II suspends constitution and dissolves Parliament in 1878

  18. Abdulhamid II

  19. Abdulhamid the reformist Mecelle-yi Ahkam-i Aliyye: code of shar a law introduced in 1877, that represents assertion of government s control of shar a. Traditionally, shar a law s authority came from transnational community of jurists who interpreted Koran and hadith. Mecelle was authoritative, within the empire, because the government made it so. Educational reforms continued under Abdulhamid: reformed schools to produce staff for new courts and new bureaucracy.

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