Partitives and Verbal Indexing in Language
Partitive subjects and verbal
indexing across languages
Ilja A. Ser
žant
“Methods for approaching variation: partitives and beyond”
Károli Gáspár University of The Reformed Church in Hungary, Budapest
September 15-17, 2022
1
Intro, terminology
•
I follow Lazard (1998) and Haspelmath (2013):
indexing
•
Various terms:
bound pronouns
,
agreement markers…
2
What are partitives?
•
Partitives are grammatical constructions that
-
are used to encode the true-partitive relation
(cf.
some of our students)
-
which crucially relies on two
(normally)
distinct sets of referents of the same
kind
•
Partitives obligatorily encode:
1.
a quantifier
some
in
some
of
our students
2. the
restrictor
our students
3. partitives are often encoded by a
special marker
(
of
) or lexically
3
Seržant
, Ilja A. 2021a. Typology of partitives.
Linguistics
59(4), 881-947.
Seržant
, Ilja A. 2021b. Diachronic typology of partitives. In Giuliana Giusti & Petra Sleeman (eds.),
Partitive Determiners,
Partitive Pronouns and Partitive Case.
(Linguistiche Arbeiten). Berlin: De Gruyter. 111-167.
What are partitives?
•
In addition to the true-partitive meaning which is definitional here, partitives are
sometimes used to encode plain quantification, e.g. ‘some words’ in the English
expression
a bunch of words
•
referred to as
pseudo-partitives
(since Selkirk 1977)
•
Corollary:
p
s
e
u
d
o
-
p
a
r
t
i
t
i
v
e
s
m
a
y
o
n
l
y
b
e
f
o
u
n
d
i
n
c
o
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
s
t
h
a
t
m
a
y
b
e
u
s
e
d
t
o
e
n
c
o
d
e
t
h
e
t
r
u
e
p
a
r
t
i
t
i
v
e
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
4
Seržant
, Ilja A. 2021a. Typology of partitives.
Linguistics
59(4), 881-947.
Seržant
, Ilja A. 2021b. Diachronic typology of partitives. In Giuliana Giusti & Petra Sleeman (eds.),
Partitive Determiners,
Partitive Pronouns and Partitive Case.
(Linguistiche Arbeiten). Berlin: De Gruyter. 111-167.
To exemplify
A cup
of
milk
Some
of
the students
A group
of
people
Some
of
the milk
eine Tasse Milch
eine Tasse
von
der Milch auf dem Tisch
a cup milk
a cup of the milk on the table
‚a cup of milk‘
‚a cup of milk on the table‘
5
Partitives in the subject slot
Variation in the verb:
1.
No indexing / the default index
2.
The verb indexes the quantifier
3.
The verb indexes the restrictor
6
Some
of
our students
quantifier
restrictor
Partitives in the subject slot
Variation:
1.
No indexing / the default index
2.
The verb indexes the quantifier
3.
The verb indexes the restrictor
7
•
I only focus on
generalized partitives (bare partitives)
8
No indexing / the default index
(1)
Lithuanian (Indo-European; p. k.)
Mačiau
keletą
jo
kolegų.
see.
pst.1sg
some.
acc
his colleague.
gen=part.
pl
‘I saw
some
of his colleagues.’
(2)
Mačiau
…
jo
kolegų.
see.
pst.1sg
his
colleague.
gen=part
.pl
‘I saw
(some)
of his colleagues.’
No indexing / the default index
(2)
Turkish (Turkic; Özyıldız 2017: 889)
Öğrenci-ler-den
gel-di.
student-
PL
-ABL(=PART
) come-PST.
3SG
‘(Some of the) students came.’
(3)
Russian (p.k.)
Gostej
ponajexalo
guest.
gen(
part
).
pl
arrived.
3
sg.neutr.pst
‘(Too many) guests have arrived.’
(4)
Lithuanian (p.k.)
Žmonių
buvo atsiradę
people.
gen(
part
).
pl
be.
3pst
appear.
ptcp.act.
non-agreeing
‘People had appeared there.’
9
•
Quite frequent: e.g. Standard Russian, Basque, Lithuanian, Ossetic,
Turkish…
No indexing / the default index
10
Partitives in the subject slot
Variation:
1.
No indexing / the default index
2.
The verb indexes the quantifier
3.
The verb indexes the restrictor
11
Partitives in the subject slot
Variation:
1.
No indexing / the default index
2.
The verb indexes the quantifier
3.
The verb indexes the restrictor
12
(5)
a.
Éibagua-ti ába wá-dagiya.
b.
Éibagua-tu ába wá-dagiya.
run-3
M
one
1PL-from
run-3
F
one
1PL-from
‘One (
m.
) of us ran.’
‘One (
f.
) of us ran.’
(6)
Garifuna (Awakan; South America; Barchas-Lichtenstein 2012: 189):
Éibagua-tiyan wá-dagiya.
run-
3pl
1
pl
-from/
part
‘(
Some)
of
us
ran.’
verbal index
+
independent nominal
subset
superset
13
(7)
Ancient Greek (Indo-European; X.
Hell.
4.2.20; Ser
žant 2012, 2015b
)
kaì en
chṓra(i) épipton
hekatérōn
and in
land.
dat.sg
fall.
impf.
3pl
each.
gen/part.pl
'and in that place
[some] of each
[group] died.’
(8)
Ancient Greek
(Eur. Her. 976-7)
ouk
ésti
thnētôn
,
hóstis
…
neg
be.
3sg
mortal.
gen(part).pl
,
rel.indef.nom.sg
‘There exists not
a (single one) of mortals
who (would rescue him).’
verbal index
+
independent nominal
subset
superset
14
(9)
Modern Eastern Armenian
(Indo-European; Dum-Tragut 2009: 313)
R˚adio-y-ov
her̊arjak-v-um
ēin
Hovhannes
radio-
ins
broadcast-
pass-ptcp.prs
aux.
3pl.
pst
Hovhannes
T’umanyan-i
patmvack’-ner-ic’.
T’umanyan-
dat
story
-pl-
abl/part
‘(
Some
) of Hovhannes T’umanyan’s stories were broadcasted on the
radio.’
verbal index
+
independent nominal
subset
superset
15
?
(10)
Jibbali (Afroasiatic, Semitic; Oman; Hofstede 1998: 42)
mэn
έ-yɔ́
d
c
ɔd
yэzir
īḳbért
from/
part
def
-people
still
visit.
impf.
3m.
pl
def
.tomb
‘(
some
) people still visit a (saint’s) tomb’
verbal index
+
independent nominal
subset
superset
16
?
•
Possibly also in Tlingit (Athabaskan), cf. Leer 1991: 135.
verbal index
+
independent nominal
subset
superset
17
?
Partitives in the subject slot
Variation:
1.
No indexing / the default index
2.
The verb indexes the quantifier
3.
The verb indexes the restrictor
18
Partitives in the subject slot
Variation:
1.
No indexing / the default index
2.
The verb indexes the quantifier
3.
The verb indexes the restrictor
19
(11)
Warapu (Sko; Papua New-Guinea; Corris 2005: 158)
Ra n-amá-ute,
owu
n-o-ké(p)í.
one
irr-2
sg
.m-
walk
some
irr-
2pl.m
-
sit
‘One of you will go,
some
of you
will stay.’
(12)
Eibela (Bosavi; Papua New-Guinea; Aiton 2016: 371) (?)
niːjɛː
laː
Smɛnɛːnaː
kɛi
di-si
1.part
det
go.
1
.
fut
asser
pfv-med.pfv
‘(Uːgei said) “Some of us will also go.”
20
The verb indexes the restrictor
(13)
Mapuche (Araucanian; Chile; Smeets 2008: 382; glosses adapted)
kiñekentu
tripa-y-iñ
đoy kiñe tripantu.
some.
pl
go.out-
ind
-
1
pl
more
one
year
‘Some of us
left for more than a year.’
(
14
)
Bininj-Gun-Wok (Evans 2003: 495)
wanjh yika na-wu ngarri-ngime
ku-rurrk ngarri-djarrk-yo-y.
well
some
m
-rel
1pl
-enter.
non-pst loc
-house 1
pl-
together-sleep-
pst.pfv
balanda-dorreng, dja yika na-wu
wurdwurd birri-lobme-ng.
white-with and some
m
-rel
children
3pl
-run-
pst.pfv
‘
Some of our people went into the dormitory
, and slept among white people;
but some of the children ran away.’
21
The verb indexes the restrictor
(15)
North Russian (Sujsar’)
A kto rabotal pokrepče,
But who worked harder,
tak
ix
byli
so
3
pl.gen(part)
exist.
pl
[lit.] ‘As for those who worked harder, there were (also some) of them.’
22
(16)
North Russian (Filin 1972: 514-5; Karskij 1956: 319, 403)
Segodn’a budet
dožd’a
Today be.
fut.3
sg
rain.
gen(part)
.sg
‘There will be rain today.’
The verb indexes the restrictor
(17)
Veps (Uralic; Koptjevskaja-Tamm & Wälchli 2001: 568)
endę
kikat
pidelībad
moŕźmīd’
earlier married.woman.
part.pl
carry.
pst.3
pl
cap.
acc.pl
‘Earlier married woman used to wear caps.’
(18)
Veps (Uralic; Koptjevskaja-Tamm & Wälchli 2001: 568)
mamšīd’
niťabad
woman.
part.pl
carry.
prs.3
pl
‘Women carry …’
23
The verb indexes the restrictor
(19)
Tatar (Turkic; Russia; Lyutikova, forthc.; glosses adapted)
berär-egez šušɩ kijem-ne
kij-ep
irkenlek-kä čɩg-ɩp kit-ärgä
any-2
pl
this clothing-
acc
put_on-
cnv
space-
dat
exit-
cnv
go-
inf
telä-mi-sez-me?
want-
neg.ipf-
2pl
-q
‘Would
anyone of you put
on this clothing and go outside?’
24
The verb indexes the restrictor
Conclusions
25
Conclusions
•
Partitives in the subject slot are rare (for independent reasons).
•
In this slot, they usually have
no effect on the verbal index
(the
default form):
- Standard Russian, Basque, Lithuanian, Ossetic, Turkish…
•
Or,
the verb indexes the quantifier
:
-
Garifuna, Ancient Greek, Modern Eastern Armenian, Jibbali,
Tlingit
•
Or,
the verb indexes the restrictor
:
-
Warapu, Eibela,
Mapuche,
Bininj-Gun-Wok,
North Russian,
Veps,
Tatar
26
Thank
you!
27
Aiton, Grant 2016:
Grammatical Relations and Information Structure in Eibela: A typological perspective.
Doctoral dissertation.
James Cook University.
Barchas-Lichtenstein, J. 2012: Garifuna Quantification.
In
Handbook of Quantifiers in Natural Language
, Keenan, E. L. and D.
Paperno (eds.), 165-226. Dordrecht: Springer.
Corris, Miriam 2005:
A grammar of Barupu, a language of Papua New Guinea.
Doctoral dissertation. University of Sydney.
Dum-Tragut, Jasmine 2009:
Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian
.
Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Hofstede, Antje Ida 1998:
Syntax of Jibbāli
. University of Manchester doctoral dissertation.
de Hoop, H. 2003: Partitivity. In L. Cheng and R. Sybesma (eds.),
The Second Glot International State-of-the-Article Book
. Berlin /
New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
Hualde, José I. & Jon Ortiz de Urbana. (2003)
A Grammar of Basque
(Mouton Grammar Library 26). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
Karskij, E. F. 1956:
Belorussy. Jazyk belorusskogo naroda.
Vyp. 2. and Vyp. 3. Moscow: Izdatel’stvo ANSSR.
Koptjevskaja-Tamm, M. and B. Wälchli 2001:
The Circum-Baltic languages: an areal-typological approach
. In Dahl and
Koptjevskaja-Tamm 2001, 615-750.
Leer, Jeffry A. (1991) The schetic categories of the Tlingit verb. University of Chicago doctoral dissertation.
Seržant, I.A.
2012: Morphosyntactic properties of the partitive genitive in the subject position in Ancient Greek,
Indogermanische Forschungen 117, 187-204
Seržant, I.A.
2014: The Independent Partitive Genitive in North Russian. In: Seržant, I. A. and B. Wiemer (eds.), Contemporary
Approaches to Dialectology: The area of North, Northwest Russian and Belarusian vernaculars, Slavica Bergensia 13. Bergen:
John Grieg AS. 270-329.
Seržant, I.A.
2015a: Independent partitive as a Circum-Baltic isogloss, Journal Language Contact 8, 341-418.
Seržant, I.A.
2015b: An Approach to Syntactic Reconstruction. In: Carlotta Vitti (ed.), Perspectives on historical syntax.
Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 117-154.
28
verbal index
+
NP
person, number, gender
NP
verbal index
2
.
I
n
d
e
x
i
n
g
(
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t
)
29
verbal index
+
NP
person, number, gender
2
.
I
n
d
e
x
i
n
g
(
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t
)
subset
superset
↔
30
verbal index
+
NP
person, number, gender
2
.
I
n
d
e
x
i
n
g
(
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t
)
superset
subset
↔
31
Partitives are grammatical constructions used to encode true-partitive relations, involving quantifiers and restrictors. They can also express plain quantification. Verbs may vary in indexing within partitives. Pseudo-partitives and true partitives exemplify how partitive constructions work. This study explores the nuances and variations in partitives and verbal indexing across languages.
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Partitive subjects and verbal indexing across languages Ilja A. Ser ant Methods for approaching variation: partitives and beyond K roli G sp r University of The Reformed Church in Hungary, Budapest September 15-17, 2022 1
Intro, terminology I follow Lazard (1998) and Haspelmath (2013): indexing Various terms: bound pronouns, agreement markers 2
What are partitives? Partitives are grammatical constructions that - are used to encode the true-partitive relation (cf. some of our students) - which crucially relies on two (normally) distinct sets of referents of the same kind Partitives obligatorily encode: 1. a quantifiersome in some of our students 2. the restrictorour students 3. partitives are often encoded by a special marker (of) or lexically Ser ant, Ilja A. 2021a. Typology of partitives. Linguistics 59(4), 881-947. Ser ant, Ilja A. 2021b. Diachronic typology of partitives. In Giuliana Giusti & Petra Sleeman (eds.), Partitive Determiners, Partitive Pronouns and Partitive Case. (Linguistiche Arbeiten). Berlin: De Gruyter. 111-167. 3
What are partitives? In addition to the true-partitive meaning which is definitional here, partitives are sometimes used to encode plain quantification, e.g. some words in the English expression a bunch of words referred to as pseudo-partitives (since Selkirk 1977) Corollary: pseudo-partitives may only be found in constructions that may be used to encode the true partitive relation Ser ant, Ilja A. 2021a. Typology of partitives. Linguistics 59(4), 881-947. Ser ant, Ilja A. 2021b. Diachronic typology of partitives. In Giuliana Giusti & Petra Sleeman (eds.), Partitive Determiners, Partitive Pronouns and Partitive Case. (Linguistiche Arbeiten). Berlin: De Gruyter. 111-167. 4
To exemplify Pseudo-partitives True partitives A cup of milk A group of people Some of the students Some of the milk True partitives Not a (pseudo-)partitive eine Tasse Milch a cup milk a cup of milk eine Tasse von der Milch auf dem Tisch a cup of the milk on the a cup of milk on the table table 5
Some quantifier of our students restrictor Partitives in the subject slot Variation in the verb: 1. No indexing / the default index 2. The verb indexes the quantifier 3. The verb indexes the restrictor 6
Partitives in the subject slot Variation: 1. No indexing / the default index 2. The verb indexes the quantifier 3. The verb indexes the restrictor 7
No indexing / the default index I only focus on generalized partitives (bare partitives) (1) Lithuanian (Indo-European; p. k.) Ma iaukelet jo koleg . see.PST.1SG some.ACC his colleague.GEN=PART.PL I saw someof his colleagues. Definite 262 (95%) Indefinite 15 (5%) (2) Ma iau see.PST.1SG I saw (some)of his colleagues. jo his colleague.GEN=PART.PL koleg . 8
No indexing / the default index (2) Turkish (Turkic; zy ld z 2017: 889) renci-ler-den student-PL-ABL(=PART) come-PST.3SG (Some of the) students came. gel-di. (3) Russian (p.k.) Gostej guest.GEN(PART).PL (Too many) guests have arrived. ponajexalo arrived.3SG.NEUTR.PST (4) Lithuanian (p.k.) moni people.GEN(PART).PL be.3PST appear.PTCP.ACT.NON-AGREEING People had appeared there. buvo atsirad 9
No indexing / the default index Quite frequent: e.g. Standard Russian, Basque, Lithuanian, Ossetic, Turkish 10
Partitives in the subject slot Variation: 1. No indexing / the default index 2. The verb indexes the quantifier 3. The verb indexes the restrictor 11
Partitives in the subject slot Variation: 1. No indexing / the default index 2. The verb indexes the quantifier 3. The verb indexes the restrictor 12
subset superset verbal index independent nominal + (5) a. ibagua-ti ba w -dagiya. b. ibagua-tu ba w -dagiya. run-3M one 1PL-from One (m.) of us ran. run-3F one 1PL-from One (f.) of us ran. (6) Garifuna (Awakan; South America; Barchas-Lichtenstein 2012: 189): ibagua-tiyan w -dagiya. run-3PL 1PL-from/PART (Some) of usran. 13
subset superset verbal index independent nominal + (7) Ancient Greek (Indo-European; X. Hell. 4.2.20; Ser ant 2012, 2015b) ka en ch ra(i) pipton and in land.DAT.SG fall.IMPF.3PL each.GEN/PART.PL 'and in that place [some] of each[group] died. hekat r n (8) Ancient Greek (Eur. Her. 976-7) ouk sti thn t n be.3SG mortal.GEN(PART).PL , There exists not a (single one) of mortalswho (would rescue him). , h stis NEG REL.INDEF.NOM.SG 14
subset superset ? verbal index independent nominal + (9) Modern Eastern Armenian (Indo-European; Dum-Tragut 2009: 313) R adio-y-ov her arjak-v-um radio-INS broadcast-PASS-PTCP.PRSAUX.3PL.PST T umanyan-i patmvack -ner-ic . T umanyan-DAT story-PL-ABL/PART (Some) of Hovhannes T umanyan s stories were broadcasted on the radio. in Hovhannes Hovhannes 15
subset superset ? verbal index independent nominal + (10)Jibbali (Afroasiatic, Semitic; Oman; Hofstede 1998: 42) m n -y from/PART DEF-peoplestill (some) people still visit a (saint s) tomb dc d y zir visit.IMPF.3M.PL b rt DEF.tomb 16
subset superset ? verbal index independent nominal + Possibly also in Tlingit (Athabaskan), cf. Leer 1991: 135. 17
Partitives in the subject slot Variation: 1. No indexing / the default index 2. The verb indexes the quantifier 3. The verb indexes the restrictor 18
Partitives in the subject slot Variation: 1. No indexing / the default index 2. The verb indexes the quantifier 3. The verb indexes the restrictor 19
The verb indexes the restrictor (11)Warapu (Sko; Papua New-Guinea; Corris 2005: 158) Ra n-am -ute, oneIRR-2SG.M-walk One of you will go, (12)Eibela (Bosavi; Papua New-Guinea; Aiton 2016: 371) (?) ni j la Sm n na k i 1.PARTDETgo.1.FUT ASSERPFV-MED.PFV (U gei said) Some of us will also go. owu n-o-k (p) . someIRR-2PL.M-sit some of you will stay. di-si 20
The verb indexes the restrictor (13) (14) Mapuche (Araucanian; Chile; Smeets 2008: 382; glosses adapted) ki ekentu tripa-y-i oy ki e tripantu. some.PL go.out-IND-1PL more one year Some of usleft for more than a year. Bininj-Gun-Wok (Evans 2003: 495) wanjh yika na-wu ngarri-ngime well some M-REL1PL-enter.NON-PSTLOC-house 1PL-together-sleep-PST.PFV balanda-dorreng, dja yika na-wu wurdwurd birri-lobme-ng. white-with and some M-REL children 3PL-run-PST.PFV Some of our people went into the dormitory, and slept among white people; but some of the children ran away. ku-rurrk ngarri-djarrk-yo-y. 21
The verb indexes the restrictor (15) North Russian (Sujsar ) A kto rabotal pokrep e, But who worked harder, tak ix so 3PL.GEN(PART) [lit.] As for those who worked harder, there were (also some) of them. byli exist.PL (16)North Russian (Filin 1972: 514-5; Karskij 1956: 319, 403) Segodn a budet do d a Today be.FUT.3SG There will be rain today. rain.GEN(PART).SG 22
The verb indexes the restrictor (17) Veps (Uralic; Koptjevskaja-Tamm & W lchli 2001: 568) end kikat earlier married.woman.PART.PL carry.PST.3PLcap.ACC.PL Earlier married woman used to wear caps. (18) Veps (Uralic; Koptjevskaja-Tamm & W lchli 2001: 568) mam d ni abad woman.PART.PL carry.PRS.3PL Women carry pidel bad mo m d 23
The verb indexes the restrictor (19) Tatar (Turkic; Russia; Lyutikova, forthc.; glosses adapted) ber r-egez u kijem-ne any-2PL this clothing-ACC put_on-CNV space-DAT exit-CNV go-INF tel -mi-sez-me? want-NEG.IPF-2PL-Q Would anyone of you put on this clothing and go outside? kij-ep irkenlek-k g- p kit- rg 24
Conclusions 25
Conclusions Partitives in the subject slot are rare (for independent reasons). In this slot, they usually have no effect on the verbal index (the default form): - Standard Russian, Basque, Lithuanian, Ossetic, Turkish Or, the verb indexes the quantifier: - Garifuna, Ancient Greek, Modern Eastern Armenian, Jibbali, Tlingit Or, the verb indexes the restrictor: - Warapu, Eibela, Mapuche, Bininj-Gun-Wok, North Russian, Veps, Tatar 26
Thank you! 27
Aiton, Grant 2016: Grammatical Relations and Information Structure in Eibela: A typological perspective. Doctoral dissertation. James Cook University. Barchas-Lichtenstein, J. 2012: Garifuna Quantification. In Handbook of Quantifiers in Natural Language, Keenan, E. L. and D. Paperno (eds.), 165-226. Dordrecht: Springer. Corris, Miriam 2005: A grammar of Barupu, a language of Papua New Guinea. Doctoral dissertation. University of Sydney. Dum-Tragut, Jasmine 2009: Armenian: Modern Eastern Armenian. Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Hofstede, Antje Ida 1998: Syntax of Jibb li. University of Manchester doctoral dissertation. de Hoop, H. 2003: Partitivity. In L. Cheng and R. Sybesma (eds.), The Second Glot International State-of-the-Article Book. Berlin / New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Hualde, Jos I. & Jon Ortiz de Urbana. (2003) A Grammar of Basque (Mouton Grammar Library 26). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Karskij, E. F. 1956: Belorussy. Jazyk belorusskogo naroda. Vyp. 2. and Vyp. 3. Moscow: Izdatel stvo ANSSR. Koptjevskaja-Tamm, M. and B. W lchli 2001: The Circum-Baltic languages: an areal-typological approach. In Dahl and Koptjevskaja-Tamm 2001, 615-750. Leer, Jeffry A. (1991) The schetic categories of the Tlingit verb. University of Chicago doctoral dissertation. Ser ant, I.A. 2012: Morphosyntactic properties of the partitive genitive in the subject position in Ancient Greek, Indogermanische Forschungen 117, 187-204 Ser ant, I.A. 2014: The Independent Partitive Genitive in North Russian. In: Ser ant, I. A. and B. Wiemer (eds.), Contemporary Approaches to Dialectology: The area of North, Northwest Russian and Belarusian vernaculars, Slavica Bergensia 13. Bergen: John Grieg AS. 270-329. Ser ant, I.A. 2015a: Independent partitive as a Circum-Baltic isogloss, Journal Language Contact 8, 341-418. Ser ant, I.A. 2015b: An Approach to Syntactic Reconstruction. In: Carlotta Vitti (ed.), Perspectives on historical syntax. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins. 117-154. 28
2. 2. Indexing Indexing ( (agreement agreement) ) Pseudo-partitives True partitives occasional indexing of the restrictor joint encoding NP verbal index NP + verbal index person, number, gender 29
2. 2. Indexing Indexing ( (agreement agreement) ) True partitives joint encoding subset superset verbal index NP + person, number, gender 30
2 2. . Indexing Indexing ( (agreement agreement) ) True partitives joint encoding superset subset verbal index NP + person, number, gender 31
