Literary Elements: Inferences, Vocabulary, and Character Development



To infer is to draw a reasonable conclusion from the

information given.  So, rather than explicitly

expressing a point, an author may imply / suggest

some aspects of characterization, conflict, theme, etc.

The reader carefully evaluations these suggestions,

and draws supportable conclusions / inferences about

the story.



Be careful:  your reasoning for these inferences must

be strongly supported through textual details /

evidence; otherwise your inferences may be weak,

unfounded, and incorrect.

Inferences



Context clues are words and phrases in a sentence

which help you reason out the meaning of an

unfamiliar word. Oftentimes you can figure out the

meanings of new or unfamiliar vocabulary by paying

attention to the surrounding language.

Vocabulary in Context

http://www.mc.cc.md.us/faculty/~steuben/public_html/vocabularycontext.htm



To 

juxtapose

 is to place side by side

or close together, especially to

compare or to contrast.

Juxtapose

/ Juxtaposition



Characterization:  The author's expression of

a character's personality through the use of

physical description, action, dialogue,

thought, or commentary by the narrator or

another character. 

(Purdue Owl)



Character Development: the character’s

progress and growth throughout the story

Character Development /

Characterization



Elements of a character’s 

personality

that define the nature of the character.

Character Traits



A static character does not change

throughout the story.  His or her personality

remains the same from the beginning through

to the end of the story.  These are typically

minor, flat characters.

Flat characters possess simple personalities.

They are typically described as possessing

one-dimensional personalities.

Static Characters



Dynamic Characters change during the course of

the story.  The dynamic character grows

emotionally, changes personality, or re-thinks

his/her perspective on life as a result of learning

through experiences / events in the story.

Dynamic characters are typically major, round

characters.



Round characters possess a complex, three-

dimensional personality.

Dynamic Characters



A protagonist is considered to be the main

character or lead figure in a story.



Typically, there is one central figure in a

story – the one “spotlighted” throughout

the tale.  However, some stories include

multiple main characters.

Protagonist



The antagonist is a character or force in

a story who deceives, frustrates, or

works against the main character, or

protagonist, in some way.

Antagonist

http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm#s



Theme

 is a common thread emphasized in the

writing.  The author will craft the theme through the

use of characters, plot, setting, and various literary

devices.



Significantly, theme involves central messages in

the writing, and therefore stems from author’s

purpose.



There may be multiple central / main themes, as

well as underlying or minor themes.

Theme

http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm



Consider the purpose and significance of the setting

in a story.



Setting is the time, place, physical details, and

circumstances in which a situation occurs.  This

includes the environment in which the characters

exist, and the physical details of the surroundings.



The author may develop the setting in order to

draw the reader into the writing, to aid in the

development of characters, or to develop conflict

in the story.  Setting often plays a significant role in

developing theme, as well.

Setting

http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm#s



Consider all aspects of setting when analyzing this

element:



Mental (Historical Time Period, Culture, Social attitudes,

etc.)



Physical (General Region, Climate/Weather, Nation,

Season, Time of Day, and Physical State of the

characters: youth, old age, sickness, etc.)



Geographic (mountains, lake, deserts, swamps, etc.)

Setting Aspects



Imagery

 involves

those words /

details that create vivid images

which are created through detailing

aspects of the five senses

Imagery



Mood

:  The atmosphere that pervades a literary

work with the intention of creating a certain emotion

or feeling from the audience. In drama, mood may be

created by sets and music as well as words; in poetry

and prose, mood may be created by a combination of

such elements as setting, imagery, and theme.

Mood

http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.html



What are the three forms of irony?

Irony



Verbal Irony

:   

Sarcasm; you say one thing but mean

the opposite. The irony of her reply, “How nice!” when I

said I had to work all weekend.



Situational Irony

:  

An outcome of events contrary to

what was, or might have been, expected. (the opposite

of what you think is going to happen).



Dramatic Irony

: 

The reader/audience knows something

that a character does not know

Irony



Internal:  in literature - a struggle which takes

place in the character's mind and through

which the character reaches a new

understanding or dynamic change.

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/internal+conflict

Conflict



External:  in literature - a struggle between

a character and some outside force



Character vs. Character



Character vs. Nature



Character vs. Society

http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/external+conflict

Conflict

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:

http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html

Exposition & Inciting Incident

http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html



Exposition

: 

setting the scene. The writer

introduces the characters and setting,

providing description and background

.



Inciting Incident

: 

something happens to

begin the action. A single event usually signals

the beginning of the main conflict. The inciting

incident is sometimes called 'the complication'.



Rising Action

: 

the story builds and gets more

exciting



Climax

: 

the moment of greatest tension in a

story. This is often the most exciting event. It is

the event that the rising action builds up to and

that the falling action follows.

Rising Action and Climax

http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html



Falling Action

: 

events happen as a result of

the climax and we know that the story will

soon end.



Resolution

: 

the character solves the main

problem/conflict or someone solves it for him

or her.

Falling Action and Resolution

http://oak.cats.ohiou.edu/~hartleyg/250/freytag.html



Chronological:  The story’s key events are presented as they

occur.



“A flashback is a narrative technique that allows a writer to

present past events during current events, in order to provide

background for the current narration. By giving material that

occurred prior to the present event, the writer provides the

reader with insight into a character's motivation and or

background to a conflict. This is done by various methods,

narration, dream sequences, and memories” (Canada).

http://www.courses.vcu.edu/ENG-jeh/BeginningReporting/Writing/storystructure.htm

http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm

Story’s Use of Time:  Chronological

and Flashback



The author hints or suggests what is to come later in

the story

Foreshadowing



1. a position from which someone or something is

observed (the manner something is considered or

evaluated) -  

from the point of view of a doctor.



2. an opinion, attitude, or judgment -  

He refuses to

change his point of view in the matter.



3. the position of the narrator in relation to the story -

(examples: first person, third person, limited,

omniscient).

Perspective / Point of View

http://dictionary.reference.com/



First Person

: 

The main character describes the

experiences he or she encounters, and gives the

reader insight into his or her thoughts, feelings,

intentions, and personality (Canada)

.



Second Person

: Second person is unusual in fiction

and is more common in poetry. In second person, the

character is not referred to as he or she, or by name,

but rather as “you.”  For example, the story may

include: “You, a boy of ten, who woke from a terrible

dream, to find your body shaking and cold.”

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/754/02/

Perspective / Point of View

http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm

http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/pv.html



Third Person Omniscient

:

  In this style, the

narrator is all knowing and moves from one character

to another as necessary to provide those characters’

motivations and emotions (Canada).



Third Person Limited

:

  The narrator focuses

typically on one character (potentially two), sharing

thoughts and feelings of that one figure in the story.

Perspective / Point of View

http://www.uncp.edu/home/canada/work/allam/general/glossary.htm

http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/pv.html



A symbol is a person, place, or object that has

a concrete meaning in itself, and also stands

for something beyond itself.



For example, the changing seasons often symbolize

the passing of time:  spring represents new life /

birth; summer represents youth; autumn

represents adulthood; and winter represents

death.

Symbol



Allusion 

– a reference, explicit or implicit, to

something in previous literature and history

•

“The girl's love of diamonds was her Achilles’ heel.”

http://www.buzzle.com/articles/allusion-examples.html

Allusion



Simile 

– comparison of two unlike objects using like

or as



Metaphor

- comparison of two unlike objects



Extended Metaphor 

– a metaphor that is extended, or

developed, over several lines or throughout a

poem/piece



Personification

 – (metaphoric);  a nonhuman element

is given human-like qualities (the arms of the tree

reach for the sky)

Comparisons



Tone

 - 

the attitude of an author toward

his or her subject matter and / or

audience.  Tone is often connected with

the “voice” of the writing.

Tone

http://rwc.hunter.cuny.edu/reading-writing/on-line/lit-terms.html



When analyzing Tone, consider 

diction

(word choice), as well as 

syntax

 (sentence

structure)



Regarding Diction, be aware of the dual aspects of

words:



Denotation

:  the explicit or direct meaning of a word



Connotation

:  the associated or secondary meaning of

a word

Elements of Tone



Hyperbole/exaggeration



1. obvious and intentional exaggeration.



2. an extravagant statement or figure of speech not

intended to be taken literally, as “to wait an

eternity.”

http://dictionary.reference.com

Hyperbole / Exaggeration



Understatement:



the act or an instance of stating something in restrained

terms, or as less than it is



A form of irony in which something is intentionally

represented as less than it is: “Hank Aaron was a pretty

good ball player.”

http://dictionary.reference.com

Understatement



A narrative that serves as an extended metaphor



The characters, settings, and objects have both literal

and figurative / symbolic meanings.

Allegory



Onomatopoeia:



1. the formation of words whose sound is imitative of

the sound of the noise or action designated, such as

hiss, buzz, 

 and 

bang



2. the use of such words for poetic or rhetorical effect



* From the Greek: “to make words”

http://dictionary.reference.com

Onomatopoeia



Repetition:



The repetition of words / phrases is called 

anaphora



The repetition of sentence structure / phrasing involves 

parallel

structure

: 

using the same pattern of words to show that two or more

ideas have the same level of importance



The repetition of letter sounds in words (typically the beginning

of words) close to one another is called 

alliteration



Overall, repetition helps to create a flow in writing, and can be

used to emphasize content

Repetition



Consonance:

  The repetition of similar consonant

sounds



Assonance:

  The repetition of similar vowel sounds

Alliteration



Rhyme

:the repetition of similar sounds. In poetry, the most common kind of

rhyme is 

end rhyme

, which occurs at the end of two or more lines. 

Internal

rhyme

 occurs in the middle of a line, as in these lines from Coleridge, "In

mist or 

cloud

, on mast or shroud" or "Whiles all the 

night

 through fog-smoke

white

" ("The Ancient Mariner"). There are many kinds of end rhyme:



True rhyme

 is what most people think of as rhyme; the sounds are nearly

identical--

notion, motion, potion

, for example.



Weak rhyme

, also called 

slant, oblique, approximate, 

or 

half rhyme

, refers

to words with similar but not identical sounds, e.g., 

notion-nation, bear-bore,

ear-are

. Emily Dickinson frequently uses partial rhymes.



Eye rhyme

 occurs when words look alike but don't sound alike--e.g., 

bear-

ear

.



http://academic.brooklyn.cuny.edu/english/melani/lit_term.html

Rhyme



Narrative

:  Telling a story. These writings are often

anecdotal (story of a personal event/occurrence),

experiential, and personal 

(http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/685/04/)



Persuasive

:  Persuasive writing intends to influence how

someone thinks, feels, acts, and makes decisions in

relation to a particular issue, idea, or proposal. The writer

is making a case and using language in a deliberative

manner. Persuasive writing can lead to decisions,

clarification of issues or positions, and 

consensus.

(http://www.principiacollege.edu/current-students/writing-center/faculty/phase-3-wrp-persuasive-writing-course/what-persuasive-writin)



Expository

:  A type of writing used to explain, or to inform

(http://www.stanford.edu/~arnetha/expowrite/info.html)

Modes of Writing



Descriptive:  

A description paper often takes a person

or object and then describes that person or thing in

great illustrative detail. For example, a description

paper about a close friend might describe his or her

appearance, her actions, and her personality, both

through direct descriptive words--like paintings of her

in different situations--and through stories showing

him in action. 

(

http://www.tc.umn.edu/~jewel001/CollegeWriting/START/Modes.htm#Description

)

Modes of Writing



Cause and Effect: 

 Cause and effect papers use analysis to examine

the 

reasons for

 and the 

outcomes

 of situations. They are an attempt

to discover either the origins of something, such as an event or a

decision, the effects or results that can be properly attributed to it, or

both. 

(http://www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/style_purpose_strategy/cause_effort.html)



Literary Analysis:  

A literary analysis is not a summary of a literary

work. Instead, it is an argument about the work that expresses a

writer’s personal perspective, interpretation, judgment, or critical

evaluation of the work. This is accomplished by examining the literary

elements and devices, word choices, and/or writing structures the

author uses within the work. The purpose of a literary analysis is

often to demonstrate why the author uses particular elements in

order to convey his or her message.  

(

www.germanna.edu/tutor/handouts/english/literary_analysis)

Modes of Writing



The Goal



The reason behind the text – “What do I want my

audience to think or do as a result of reading my

text?”



What you hope to accomplish by this expression of

opinion.



How would you like your audience to respond?

Purpose



POV, characterization, plot, setting,

tone, mood, literary  devices



Extension of the elements in lengthier

fiction pieces



More limited / abbreviated elements in

short fiction pieces

Genre Traits – Long and Short Fiction



Nonfiction with an emphasis on facts include essays, letters,

editorials, news articles, biographies, autobiographies, textbooks,

and focused topic books.



“Creative Nonfiction” includes feature articles, memoirs, narrative

and reflective essays, literary journalism, profiles, brochures, ads.

There is a concentration on persuasion, analysis, and reflection.



SOAPStone (Speaker 

[persona]

, Occasion, Audience, Purpose,

Subject, Tone)



Bias



Text Features (headings, photos, captions, fonts)



In argument / claim focus pieces: writers include personal

anecdotes, historical / current evidence, and/or expert testimony

to aid in support of claim/purpose.

Genre Traits - Nonfiction



POV:  there is typically a “speaker” or “persona”

crafted; sometimes the poet speaks directly in

poem.



Setting



Physical Structure of poem (rhyme, rhythm, line

breaks)



Tone and Mood



Literary Devices:  compact nature of poem and this

impact upon expression/development of devices

Genre Traits - Poetry



Dialogue



Stage Directions



Props



Typical / Atypical narrator

commentary

Genre Traits - Drama



A 

thesis statement / claim statement

…



is a proposal, argument, or theory



tells the reader how you will interpret the significance of

(analyze) the subject matter



is a road map/outline for the paper



directly answers the question/prompt. 



A thesis is 

an

interpretation (analysis) of a question or subject, not the

subject itself

.



For Example: The subject, or topic, of an essay might be

World War II or Moby Dick; a thesis must then offer a

way to 

understand

 the war or the novel.



is usually a 

single sentence 

at the end of your introduction



The rest of the paper, the body of the essay, gathers

and organizes evidence that will persuade the reader of

the logic of your thesis/argument/analysis.

adapted from –http://www.unc.edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/thesis.html

Thesis Statement



Every paragraph should include a 

topic sentence 

that

identifies the main idea of the paragraph. A topic

sentence also states the point the writer wishes to

make about that subject. The topic sentence appears

at the beginning of the paragraph as the paragraph’s

very first sentence. A paragraph’s topic sentence

must be general enough to express the paragraph’s

overall subject. But it should be specific enough that

the reader can understand the paragraph’s main

subject and point.



Adapted from http://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/index.php?category_id=2&sub_category_id=1&article_id=29

Topic Sentence



To “embed” a quotation is to make the quotation a

part of your writing – a part of your sentence.



Consider three important steps in the embedding

process:



1.  Introduce your quotation.  This introductory

sentence “sets the stage” for the upcoming

quotation.  The introductory sentence tells the reader

such points as what is happening in the story at the

point that the quotation is taken, or a general idea of

the situation in which the quotation exists.

MLA Format for Embedding and

Citing Quotations



2.  After introducing the quotation, you will craft your embedded

quotation sentence.  In this sentence, you will create a short

phrase that leads into the quotation, include the quotation, and

then cite the quotation.  The formal citation includes the author’s

last name and page number.  (Miller 22).  Note that the period

comes after the parentheses.  Be sure that you select logical,

effective, and substantial quotations for your analysis.



3.  Following the embedded quotation sentence, you will

thoroughly analyze the importance of the quotation.  Please do

not summarize or re-state the quotation!  Analyze: Why did you

select this detail?  How does the quotation support your claim,

prove your point, or provide important evidence?  This analysis

will take 

more than one sentence.

MLA Format for Embedding and

Citing Quotations



Example Thesis Sentence

:  In 

The Crucible

, Miller crafts Parris and Abigail as

deceptive and selfish characters in order to emphasize his theme that greed in those

who hold positions of power may lead to destructive decisions for their community.



Example Topic Sentence

:  Miller establishes Abigail as a dishonest and greedy static

character whose actions greatly harm her community.



Introductory Sentence

:  Early in the play, the author directly characterizes her

deceitfulness through his stage directions.



Embedded Quotation Sentence

:  Miller writes that Abigail possesses “an endless

capacity for dissembling.  Now she is all worry and apprehension and propriety”

(Miller 9).



Analysis

:  Through this commentary, Miller emphasizes the fact that Abigail often lies,

and that she has an ability to put on a false face.  Clarifying Abigail’s deceitful nature

causes the reader to then question the sincerity of her later actions in calling out

witches.  Furthermore, this commentary tells the reader that at the moment, she is only

pretending to be anxious for her cousin’s well-being, and only playing the role of a

proper young woman.  This deception is done to avoid any focus on her, and potential

punishment for what she had been doing in the woods.

MLA Format for Embedding and

Citing Quotations



The 

concluding sentence

 wraps up and ends the

paragraph.  The purpose of the concluding sentence

is to emphasize the topic of that paragraph, and write

an overall reflection of the topic’s significance.



Do Not: 

introduce a new topic in the concluding

sentence of a paragraph.  This weakens the focus of that

particular paragraph.

Concluding Sentence



Redundancy involves the unnecessary repetition of

words.  This happens when you may express the same

idea / point several times.



Goal:  eliminate words that express the obvious or

repeat detail.

Redundancy



Commas are needed to:



Separate an introductory phrase



When the snow stops falling, we'll shovel the driveway.



Separate independent clauses



Yesterday was her brother's birthday, so she took him out to dinner.



Set apart phrases in the middle of a sentence that are not essential to the

meaning of a sentence



This restaurant has an exciting atmosphere. The food

, on the other hand,

 is

rather bland.



Separate ideas / items in a list



The Constitution establishes the legislative, executive, and judicial branches

of government.



Set apart geographical places, dates, addresses



Birmingham, Alabama, gets its name from Birmingham, England.



Indicate a shift between text and quotation



John said without emotion, "I'll see you tomorrow.“



Adapted from Purdue Owl

Comma  ,



Use a colon:



After an independent clause when introducing a list



The catering facility offers the following entrees: fried

catfish, grilled chicken, pan-seared salmon, and sirloin

steak.



After an independent clause when introducing a

quotation (do not overuse this technique)



My teacher’s remark on my final essay was very

complimentary: “This essay coherently analyzes musical

trends of the late 20th century.”



Adapted from Purdue Owl

Colon   :



Use a semi-colon:



To join two independent clauses (this will help to avoid

run-on sentences)



Seinfeld

 was definitely my favorite television show during

the 1990s; in fact, it is my favorite television show of all

time.



Between items in a list that already involves commas



I have lived in Chicago, Illinois; Kansas City, Missouri; and

Omaha, Nebraska.



Adapted from Purdue Owl

Semi-Colon   ;



In order to avoid fragments, a sentence must include both

a subject and a verb.



The subject and verb in a sentence must “agree” in

number



If the subject is plural, the plural form of the verb must be

used; if the subject is singular, the singular form of the verb

must be used.

Examples:

She and her friends are at the fair.

The book or the pen is in the drawer.

Adapted from Purdue Owl

Subject-Verb Agreement



Because a pronoun takes the place of or refers to a noun, you must

use the correct pronoun form to be clear.



The Pronoun:



Must be clear and specific:  Do not be vague or ambiguous



Example:  INCORRECT: If you put this sheet in your notebook, you can

refer to it.  (What does “It” refer to?  Sheet?  Notebook?)



Must agree in number:  If the pronoun takes the place of a singular noun,

you have to use a singular pronoun.



Example:  If a student parks a car on campus, he or she has to buy a

parking sticker.



Must agree in person:



If you are writing in the 

first person 

(I), don't confuse your reader by

switching to the 

second person

 (you) or 

third person

 (he, she, they, it,

etc.). Similarly, if you are using the second person, don't switch to first or

third.



Example:  When a person comes to class, he or she should have his or her

homework ready.



Adapted from Purdue Owl

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

(antecedent = preceding or prior)

Pronoun Usage – Case

(taken from Purdue Owl)

There are three cases:

•

Subjective case: pronouns used as subject.

•

Objective case: pronouns used as objects of verbs or prepositions.

•

Possessive case: pronouns which express ownership.



Some problems of case:



1. In compound structures, where there are two pronouns or a

noun and a pronoun, drop the other noun for a moment. Then you

can see which case you want.



Not:

 Bob and me travel a good deal.

(Would you say, "me travel"?)



Not:

 He gave the flowers to Jane and I.

(Would you say, "he gave the flowers to I"?)



Not:

 Us men like the coach.

(Would you say, "us like the coach"?)



2. In comparisons. Comparisons usually follow than or as:



He is taller than I (am tall).



This helps you as much as (it helps) me.



She is as noisy as I (am).

Pronoun Usage – Case

(taken from Purdue Owl)



Parallel Structure 

– 

means using the same pattern of

words to show that two or more ideas have the same

level of importance.



The usual way: to join parallel phrases/clauses with the use of

coordinating conjunctions “and” or “or”

Mary likes hiking, swimming, and bicycling

-The Owl, Purdue University

Parallel Structure /

Parallelism



Not Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of

sleep, that they should not eat too much, and to do some

warm-up exercises before the game.



Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of

sleep, that they should not eat too much, and that they

should do some warm-up exercises before the game.



— or —

Parallel:

The coach told the players that they should get a lot of

sleep, not eat too much, and do some warm-up exercises

before the game.

Parallel Structure / Parallelism



Be sure to logically place phrases that provide

details, so that they modify that which you

intend for them to describe.



How would you revise the following sentence?



Old maps show horrible creatures in uncharted

seas with enormous claws, horns, and wings.

Proper Placement of Modifiers

Utopia and Dystopia

“Utopia” – comes from the Greek expression

of “no place.”  It refers to an ideal place; it

also means any visionary system of political

or social perfection.

“Dystopia” - a society characterized by human

misery, as squalor, oppression, disease, and

overcrowding; the worst place possible.

http://dictionary.reference.com/