Fictional Speech and Phonostylistics in Literature
undefined
Société de Stylistique anglaise
(SSA)
Poetics & Linguistics Association
(PALA)
Mick Short
&
Geoff Leech
(University of
Lancaster)
Style in Fiction
G. Leech & M. Short
Longman, [1981] 2007
Phonostylistics (coined by phonologist Nicolaï
Trubetskoy)
Phono + stylistics
: studies variation in speech
In literature
:
representation
of speech & not
real speech
Tension between
realism
and a certain amount
of
conventions
Altogether, it may be concluded that real
conversation is unlikely to be promising material
for literary employment, and that it must strike an
observer who has an eye on the aesthetic
capabilities of language as sloppy, banal, and ill-
organised. We come, once more to our familiar
conclusion about realism: the author of a literary
fiction does not aim at a completely realistic
representation of the features of ordinary
conversation.
(
Style in Fiction
, 2007: 129)
Several parameters may be encoded in fiction:
Spatial markers
(countries, regions, localities)
Social markers
(
education
, social background)
Attitudinal markers
(emotions conveyed)
Fictional speech is rarely studied.
When it is
DS, IS, FIS , NRSA (Leech & Short ch. 10).
Fictional speech regarded as:
not important enough (‘vividness’; ‘brings local colour’ & ‘conveys
the flavour of real speech’ but nothing important).
So different from real speech: no use to study it
per se
.
However, when reading, readers accept FS as authentic
enough for two reasons:
S.T. Coleridge’s notion of
‘willing suspension of disbelief’
(we
suspend our disbelief and accept the fictional world as it is
presented or we close the book. (We accept to cooperate
with the narrator). // Grice’s Cooperative Principle
Good writers have
a good ear for conversation
easy to be
taken in.
Orality & Literacy
, Walter Ong, Routledge, 2003.
Forms of Speech in Victorian Fiction, R. Chapman,
Longman, 1994.
Strange Talk
, Gavin Jones, University of California, 1999,
Rotten English – A Literary Anthology
, Dohra Ahmad
(ed), Norton, 2007.
Impossible to present everything: focus on
Spatial markers (Somerset Maugham G.B.)
Attitudinal markers (Edith Wharton U.S.)
Case study
: Kate Chopin’s’Beyond the Bayou’
Eye-dialect; dialect encoding
Stage Cockney
: type of accent used by actors to
represent a Cockney accent conventionally.
Similar thing in literature:
Jocular spelling
used by Dickens, G.B. Shaw or
S. Maugham to represent Cockney speech
(accent and / or dialect).
_ere’s no guy livin_ _at knows Brooklyn t_o_
an’ t_ro_ (only the dead know Brooklyn t_ro_
and t_ro_).
Th
ere’s no guy livi
ng
th
at knows Brooklyn
through
and
through
(only the dead know
Brooklyn
through
and
through
).
D
ere’s no guy livi
n’
d
at knows Brooklyn
t’
r
oo
an’
t’
r
oo
(only the dead know Brooklyn
t’
r
oo
and
t’
r
oo
).
Nous n’identifions vraiment que de dix à douze lettres par
saccade : trois ou quatre lettres à gauche du centre du regard,
et sept ou huit lettres à droite. Au-delà de cette zone, que l’on
appelle l’empan de perception visuel des lettres, l’expérience
montre que nous ne sommes pratiquement plus sensibles à
l’identité des lettres, mais seulement à la présence des
espaces qui délimitent le mot suivant (
Les Neurones de la
lecture,
Stanislas Dehaene, 2007)
Dialect encoding /decoding is not an obstacle to the reading
process even when readers do not know the target accent /
dialect.
The reading process is very sophisticated and makes up for
idiosyncratic encoding.
‘Graphie, phonie et encodage dialectal :le cas du Cockney de S.
Maugham’
M. Jobert 2003
Lexis
(available online)
Maugham is recognised as accurate in his presentation of Cockney
Cockney is famous for its
diphthong shifts
:
Sheep
/
Si:p
/
/
S@ip
/
Shape
/
SeIp
/
/
SaIp
/
Time
/
taIm
/
/
tQIm/
Boy
/
bOI
/
/
boI
/
/aI/
is often the result of a stressed <i> followed by a
consonant and a vowel (often<e>)
Maugham changes the original spelling to <i>. This change
is in fact based on a
regular spelling-to-sound rule:
<i> C <e># :
b
i
be
(89),
f
i
ce
(11),
g
i
me
(78), (40),
n
i
me
(53),
s
i
me
(59),
t
i
ke
(24),
w
i
ges
(21),
w
i
ke
(81),
w
i
ste
(45).
The sequence <i> C V is rarer :
l
i
dies
(40),
f
i
tal
(64). Perhaps
because <i> CV is less easy to recognise visually.
There are very few cases where the digraph <ai> is changed
into <i> :
W
i
t
e
(57), afr
i
d
e
(68)
On top of this change a final <e> is added in order to evoke
the regular sequence <i> C <e>. Otherwise, it would have
given
/wIt/
and
/@"frId/
There are few attempts to indicates shifts from
/
OI/
to /
oI
/ :
Come an’ j
i
ne in’
(45)
The author uses the same tool <i> C <e> but this
does not correspond to /
oI
/.
The spelling resources are too limited. The shift
from /i:/ to
/@i
/ is absent from the novel.
The shift from /
aI
/ to /
OI
/ is not represented
with forms such as
toim(e)
for
time
or
foin(e)
for
fine
probably because this sequence is rare in
English.
Why am I so
‘
omble? Because I am
da
boss
o’
da
most
‘o
mble institution in
da
world –
Da
Roman Ca
t
lick Ch
oy
ch!
H-dropping (‘omble)
TH-fronting (d /t) instead of
T / D
)
o’ instead of
/@v
/ (weak form and not dialect
encoding)
2 lexical oddities: Catlick / Ch
oy
ch
These features do not typically represent a South
American Accent.
In
Liza of Lambeth,
very few Cockney features are
actually encoded.
When they are, they are based on a regular spelling-to-
sound pattern.
The other features graphically encoded are interpreted
as belonging to Cockney speech.
In the Cartoon of the Pope, the phonetic features
encoded do not represent a South American accent.
In both cases, the cognitive framework of readers is re-
programmed to trigger specific references to Cockney or
to a South American accent even when the hard facts do
not represent a particular accent.
Paralinguistic Vocal Features
:
Paralinguistic features of speech are those which
contribute
to the expression of attitude by a
speaker
. They are phonetic features of speech
which do not form an intrinsic part of the
phonological contrasts which make up the verbal
message. (
G. Brown, 1990, 112)
Listening to
Spoken English,
What is important is to distinguish
variation from
the speaker’s norm
.
The combination of some of these features is
typical of certain attitudes or emotions.
However, there is
no direct mapping between a
given feature and a particular emotion
.
When dealing with written texts, references to
PVFs are not always straightforwardly encoded and
a certain amount of literary convention exists.
“‘I love you’, she smiled”
(?) “‘I love you’, she said with deliberate
articulatory precision”
.
She said loudly
(phonetic feature encoded)
She said irritably
(attitude encoded)
A certain amount of inference is needed and interpreting these comments is
heavily context-dependent. A loud voice can be triggered by
anger
or by
happiness
.
“This is beyond every thing!”
exclaimed
Elinor. (
phonetic feature encoded
).
Jane Austen,
Sense and Sensibility
(177).
“Perhaps, then,” he
hesitatingly replied
, (
attitude encoded
) “what I heard
this morning may be – there may be more truth in it than I could believe
possible at first. Jane Austen,
Sense and Sensibility
(167).
“But have you note received my notes?”
cried
(
phonetic features encoded
)
Marianne
in the wildest anxiety
(
attitude encoded
). Jane Austen,
Sense and
Sensibility
(149).
The fact that authors do this, that readers habitually cope with it, and that
readers-aloud often adopt the same sorts of paralinguistic features to
express a given emotion or attitude, suggests that
there are regular,
conventional, relationships between some descriptive terms and the
paralinguistic features which they evoke
. (Brown, 1990, 114)
PVFs can either corroborate the actual content of an utterance
(
redundancy
) or contradict it (
discrepancy
), the latter being rarer in fiction:
“Oh yes, I have!” Felix
declared
,
with some spirit
; “before I knew better. But
you don’t catch me at it again”. Henry James,
The Europeans
(114).
(
redundancy
).
“
Do
you know I love you?”
the young man
said, jocosely
, to Isabel. Henry
James,
Portrait of a Lady
327). (
discrepancy
).
It is believed there are about 600 possible substitutes for
said
after DS and
that 20
th
century novelists use only about 50 of them in a given novel
(Crystal: 2003). There are major quantitative differences from one author to
the next in the use of these “prose stage-directions”.
Ventnor
. Your letters.
Mrs Dale
. My letters – do you remember them?
Ventnor
. When I don’t, I reread them.
Mrs Dale
. You have them still?
Ventnor
. You haven’t mine, then?
Mrs Dale
. Oh,
you
were a celebrity already. Of course I kept them!
Think what they are worth now! I always keep them locked up in my
safe over there.
Ventnor
. I always carry yours with me.
Mrs Dale
. You –
Ventnor
. Whenever I go. I have them now.
Mrs Dale
. You – have them with you – now?
Ventnor
. Why not? One never knows –
Ventnor
. Your letters.
Mrs Dale
(
in a changed voice
). My letters – do you remember them?
Ventnor
. When I don’t, I reread them.
Mrs Dale
(
incredulous
). You have them still?
Ventnor
(
dejectedly
). You haven’t mine, then?
Mrs Dale
(
playfully
). Oh,
you
were a celebrity already. Of course I kept
them! (
smiling
) Think what they are worth now! I always keep them
locked up in my safe over there. (
She indicates a cabinet
)
Ventnor
(
after a pause
). I always carry yours with me.
Mrs Dale
(
laughing
). You –
Ventnor
. Whenever I go. (
A longer pause. She looks at him fixedly
). I
have them now.
Mrs Dale
(
agitated
). You – have them with you – now?
Ventnor
(
embarrassed
). Why not? One never knows –.
Ventnor
. Your letters.
Mrs Dale
(
in a changed voice
). My letters – do you remember them?
Ventnor
. When I don’t, I reread them.
Mrs Dale
(
incredulous
). You have them still?
Ventnor
(
unguardedly
). You haven’t mine, then?
Mrs Dale
(
playfully
). Oh,
you
were a celebrity already. Of course I kept
them! (
smiling
) Think what they are worth now! I always keep them
locked up in my safe over there. (
She indicates a cabinet
)
Ventnor
(
after a pause
). I always carry yours with me.
Mrs Dale
(
laughing
). You –
Ventnor
. Whenever I go. (
A longer pause. She looks at him fixedly
). I
have them now.
Mrs Dale
(
agitated
). You – have them with you – now?
Ventnor
(
embarrassed
). Why not? One never knows.
Text 0
: Quite difficult to interpret.
Text 1
: The impression is that Ventnor is still hopelessly
in love whilst Mrs Dale simply plays with him.
Text 2
(original version): The impression is that Ventnor
is trying to deceive Mrs Dale who is caught unaware.
In the process, readers discover that the purpose of Mr
Vender’s visit is to retrieve the love letters he wrote to
Mrs Dale in order to use them in his memoirs.
paralinguistic encoding is to be regarded as a dynamic
process,
The analysis of short extracts shows that PVFs do not
work at sentence but at discourse level.
PVFs can be forward or backward pointing and apply to
smaller or longer stretches of dialogue.
A particular paralinguistic comment may remain active
over a number of turns or simply apply to the chunk of
DS it is attached to.
From this perspective, a quantitative analysis is often
insufficient and may very turn out to be misleading.
Conversation Analysis
is based on
Politeness
Penelope Brown & Stephen
Levinson (1987)
Often criticised but still a major reference.
Based on Erving Goffman’s notion of FACE
FACE
: the public self-image of a person
POLITENESS
: the means employed to show awareness of another person’s
face.
FACE WANT
: people’s expectations concerning their public self-image.
FACE THREATENING ACT
: Something said that represents a threat to one’s
expectations regharding self-image
FACE SAVING ACT
: Something said to lessen a possible threat.
It is expected that every speaker attempts to respect the FACE WANT of
others. There are many ways of performing FACE SAVING ACTS.
Negative face
The need to be independent, to have freedom of action,
not to be imposed upon by others
Negative politeness
appeals to the negative face: to
show deference, to emphasise the importance of the
other’s time or concern. It includes apology for
imposition or interruption.
“Could you …” modal
I’m sorry to bother you but …
Might I ask (question)
It gives you interlocutor the opportunity to refuse without
the same refusing effect.
Negative politeness is part of
DEFERENCE STRATEGY
(emphasis on independence).
Positive face
The need to be accepted, liked, to be treated as a
member of the same group. Need to be “connected”.
Positive politeness
appeals to the positive face. You use
Face saing acts concerned with solidarity, you
emphasise the fact you want the same thing as the
other person.
It is often preceded by some “getting to know you” talk.
It is still risky (a refusal is possible).
Positive politeness is part of
SOLIDARITY STRATEGY
. Use
of nicknames, shared dialect, slang + “we”, “let’s”
including theinterlocutor.
SAY SOMETHING OFF AND ON RECORD
Off record statements
are not addressed: “I
wonder where I put my pen …” The other can act
as if he hadn’t heard.
On record statements
are addressed:
“ I haven’t got a pen”
Bald on record
statements
: “Give me a pen”.
Often though, it is followed by “
mitigating devices
”
such as “please”, “would you” etc.
Delve into the realm of fictional speech and phonostylistics within literature, examining the representation of speech versus real speech, the encoding of spatial, social, and attitudinal markers, and the significance of fictional speech in creating immersive narratives. Discover how authors navigate the balance between realism and artistic expression, shaping readers' engagement through the manipulation of language and dialogue in fiction.
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Manuel Jobert Universit Jean Moulin Lyon 3 manuel.jobert@wanadoo.fr PHONOSTYLISTICS AND THE NOVEL
STYLISTIQUE ANGLAISE Soci t de Stylistique anglaise (SSA) Poetics & Linguistics Association (PALA) Mick Short Mick Short & Geoff Geoff Leech Lancaster) Style in Fiction Style in Fiction G. Leech & M. Short Longman, [1981] 2007 Leech (University of
FICTIONAL SPEECH Phonostylistics (coined by phonologist Nicola Trubetskoy) Phono Phono + + stylistics stylistics: studies variation in speech In In literature literature: representation of speech & not real speech Tension between realism realism and a certain amount of conventions conventions
FICTIONAL SPEECH Altogether, conversation is unlikely to be promising material for literary employment, and that it must strike an observer who has an eye on the aesthetic capabilities of language as sloppy, banal, and ill- organised. We come, once more to our familiar conclusion about realism: the author of a literary fiction does not aim at a completely realistic representation of the conversation. (Style Style in in Fiction Fiction, 2007: 129) it may be concluded that real features of ordinary
FICTIONAL SPEECH Several Several parameters parameters may Spatial markers Spatial markers (countries, regions, localities) Social markers Social markers (education, social background) Attitudinal markers Attitudinal markers (emotions conveyed) may be be encoded encoded in fiction: in fiction:
FICTIONAL SPEECH Fictional speech is rarely studied. When it is DS, IS, FIS , NRSA (Leech & Short ch. 10). Fictional speech regarded as: not important enough ( vividness ; brings local colour & conveys the flavour of real speech but nothing important). So different from real speech: no use to study it per se. However, when reading, readers accept FS as authentic enough for two reasons: S.T. Coleridge s notion of willing willing suspension of suspend our disbelief and accept the fictional world as it is presented or we close the book. (We accept to cooperate with the narrator). // Grice s Cooperative Principle Good writers have a good a good ear ear for conversation taken in. suspension of disbelief disbelief (we for conversation easy to be
FICTIONAL SPEECH Orality & Literacy, Walter Ong, Routledge, 2003. Forms of Speech in Victorian Fiction, R. Chapman, Longman, 1994. Strange Talk, Gavin Jones, University of California, 1999, Rotten English A Literary Anthology, Dohra Ahmad (ed), Norton, 2007. Impossible to present everything: focus on Spatial markers (Somerset Maugham G.B.) Attitudinal markers (Edith Wharton U.S.) Case Case study study: Kate Chopin s Beyond the Bayou
1. SPATIAL MARKERS Eye-dialect; dialect encoding Stage Cockney Stage Cockney: type of accent used by actors to represent a Cockney accent conventionally. Similar thing in literature: Jocular Jocular spelling spelling used by Dickens, G.B. Shaw or S. Maugham to represent Cockney speech (accent and / or dialect).
THOMAS WOLFE ONLY THE DEAD KNOW BROOKLYN _ere s no guy livin_ _at knows Brooklyn t_o_ an t_ro_ (only the dead know Brooklyn t_ro_ and t_ro_). Th There s no guy living ng th that knows Brooklyn through through and through through (only the dead know Brooklyn through through and through D Dere s no guy livin n d dat knows Brooklyn t t roo an t t roo oo (only the dead know Brooklyn t t roo and t t roo oo). through). oo oo
Nous nidentifions vraiment que de dix douze lettres par saccade : trois ou quatre lettres gauche du centre du regard, et sept ou huit lettres droite. Au-del de cette zone, que l on appelle l empan de perception visuel des lettres, l exp rience montre que nous ne sommes pratiquement plus sensibles l identit des lettres, mais seulement la pr sence des espaces qui d limitent le mot suivant (Les Neurones de la lecture, Stanislas Dehaene, 2007) Dialect encoding /decoding is not an obstacle to the reading process even when readers do not know the target accent / dialect. The reading process is very sophisticated and makes up for idiosyncratic encoding.
SOMERSET MAUGHAM: LIZA OF LAMBETH (1897) Graphie, phonie Graphie, phonie et encodage dialectal et encodage dialectal :le cas du Cockney de S. Maugham Maugham M. Jobert 2003 M. Jobert 2003 Lexis Lexis ( (available Maugham is recognised as accurate in his presentation of Cockney Cockney is famous for its diphthong shifts : :le cas du Cockney de S. available online) online) R.P. Cockney Sheep Shape Time Boy / / / / / / / / / / / / / / /
LIZA OF LAMBETH is often the result of a stressed <i> followed by a consonant and a vowel (often<e>) Maugham changes the original spelling to <i>. This change is in fact based on a regular regular spelling spelling- -to to- -sound <i> C <e># : bi ibe (89), fi ice (11), gi ime (78), (40), ni ime (53), si ime (59), ti ike (24), wi iges (21), wi ike (81), wi iste (45). The sequence <i> C V is rarer : li idies (40), fi ital (64). Perhaps because <i> CV is less easy to recognise visually. There are very few cases where the digraph <ai> is changed into <i> : Wi ite e (57), afri ide e (68) On top of this change a final <e> is added in order to evoke the regular sequence <i> C <e>. Otherwise, it would have given and sound rule rule: :
LIZA OF LAMBETH There are few attempts to indicates shifts from / to / / : Come an ji ine in (45) The author uses the same tool <i> C <e> but this does not correspond to / The spelling resources are too limited. The shift from /i:/ to / is absent from the novel. The shift from / / to / with forms such as toim(e) for time or foin(e) for fine probably because this sequence is rare in English. /. / is not represented
ACCENT ACCENT ENCODING ENCODING Why am I so omble? Because I am da da da most o omble institution in da Roman Cat tlick Choy oych! da boss o o Da da world Da
A SOUTH AMERICAN ACCENT? H-dropping ( omble) TH-fronting (d /t) instead of o instead of encoding) 2 lexical oddities: Catlick / Choych ) / (weak form and not dialect These features do not typically represent a South American Accent.
CONCLUSIONS ABOUT ACCENT ENCODING In Liza of Lambeth, very few Cockney features are actually encoded. When they are, they are based on a regular spelling-to- sound pattern. The other features graphically encoded are interpreted as belonging to Cockney speech. In the Cartoon of the Pope, the phonetic features encoded do not represent a South American accent. In both cases, the cognitive framework of readers is re- programmed to trigger specific references to Cockney or to a South American accent even when the hard facts do not represent a particular accent.
2. ATTITUDINAL MARKERS Paralinguistic Paralinguistic Vocal Paralinguistic features of speech are those which contribute to to the the expression expression of of attitude speaker speaker. They are phonetic features of speech which do not form an intrinsic part of the phonological contrasts which make up the verbal message. (G. Brown, 1990, 112) Listening to Spoken English, What is important is to distinguish variation from the speaker s norm the speaker s norm. Vocal Features Features: attitude by by a a variation from
Descriptive Framework for Paralinguistic Vocal Features 1. Para-prosodic features Loudness Pitch Tempo Rhythm Pause 2. Vocal qualifiers types of tension - articulatory precision (precise / slurred) - articulatory setting (tense / lax) - lip setting (smiling / pursed) types of phonation - falsetto voice - whispered voice - creaky voice - harsh /husky voice - breathy voice peripheral modes - culturally coded onomatopoeia ( tsk , tut etc.) - intentional cough / throat clearing etc. 3. Vocal qualifications Laughter Crying Sighing
PVF The combination of some of these features is typical of certain attitudes or emotions. However, there is no no direct direct mapping given given feature feature and and a a particular particular emotion When dealing with written texts, references to PVFs are not always straightforwardly encoded and a certain amount of literary convention exists. I love you , she smiled (?) I love you , she articulatory precision . mapping between emotion. between a a said with deliberate
PVF She said loudly (phonetic feature encoded) She said irritably (attitude encoded) A certain amount of inference is needed and interpreting these comments is heavily context-dependent. A loud voice can be triggered by anger happiness happiness. anger or by This is beyond every thing! exclaimed Jane Austen, Sense and Sensibility (177). exclaimed Elinor. (phonetic feature encoded). Perhaps, then, he hesitatingly replied this morning may be there may be more truth in it than I could believe possible at first. Jane Austen, Sense and Sensibility (167). hesitatingly replied, (attitude encoded) what I heard But have you note received my notes? cried Marianne in the wildest anxiety in the wildest anxiety (attitude encoded). Jane Austen, Sense and Sensibility (149). cried (phonetic features encoded)
The fact that authors do this, that readers habitually cope with it, and that readers-aloud often adopt the same sorts of paralinguistic features to express a given emotion or attitude, suggests that there conventional, conventional, relationships relationships between between some paralinguistic paralinguistic features features which which they they evoke evoke. (Brown, 1990, 114) there are terms and are regular, regular, and the some descriptive descriptive terms the PVFs can either corroborate the actual content of an utterance (redundancy redundancy) or contradict it (discrepancy discrepancy), the latter being rarer in fiction: Oh yes, I have! Felix declared you don t catch me at it again . Henry James, The Europeans (114). (redundancy redundancy). declared, with some spirit; before I knew better. But Do you know I love you? the young man said, jocosely James, Portrait of a Lady 327). (discrepancy It is believed there are about 600 possible substitutes for said after DS and that 20thcentury novelists use only about 50 of them in a given novel (Crystal: 2003). There are major quantitative differences from one author to the next in the use of these prose stage-directions . said, jocosely, to Isabel. Henry discrepancy).
EDITH WHARTON: COPY: A DIALOGUE (1900) TEXT 0 Ventnor Ventnor. Your letters. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale. My letters do you remember them? Ventnor Ventnor. When I don t, I reread them. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale. You have them still? Ventnor Ventnor. You haven t mine, then? Mrs Dale Mrs Dale. Oh, you were a celebrity already. Of course I kept them! Think what they are worth now! I always keep them locked up in my safe over there. Ventnor Ventnor. I always carry yours with me. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale. You Ventnor Ventnor. Whenever I go. I have them now. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale. You have them with you now? Ventnor Ventnor. Why not? One never knows
EDITH WHARTON: COPY: A DIALOGUE (1900) TEXT 1 Ventnor Ventnor. Your letters. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale (in a changed voice in a changed voice). My letters do you remember them? Ventnor Ventnor. When I don t, I reread them. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale (incredulous incredulous). You have them still? Ventnor Ventnor (dejectedly dejectedly). You haven t mine, then? Mrs Dale Mrs Dale (playfully playfully). Oh, you were a celebrity already. Of course I kept them! (smiling smiling) Think what they are worth now! I always keep them locked up in my safe over there. (She indicates a cabinet She indicates a cabinet) Ventnor Ventnor (after a pause after a pause). I always carry yours with me. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale (laughing laughing). You Ventnor Ventnor. Whenever I go. (A longer pause. She looks at him fixedly A longer pause. She looks at him fixedly). I have them now. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale (agitated agitated). You have them with you now? Ventnor Ventnor (embarrassed embarrassed). Why not? One never knows .
EDITH WHARTON: COPY: A DIALOGUE (1900) TEXT 2 Ventnor Ventnor. Your letters. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale (in a changed voice in a changed voice). My letters do you remember them? Ventnor Ventnor. When I don t, I reread them. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale (incredulous incredulous). You have them still? Ventnor Ventnor (unguardedly unguardedly). You haven t mine, then? Mrs Dale Mrs Dale (playfully playfully). Oh, you were a celebrity already. Of course I kept them! (smiling smiling) Think what they are worth now! I always keep them locked up in my safe over there. (She indicates a cabinet She indicates a cabinet) Ventnor Ventnor (after a pause after a pause). I always carry yours with me. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale (laughing laughing). You Ventnor Ventnor. Whenever I go. (A longer pause. She looks at him fixedly A longer pause. She looks at him fixedly). I have them now. Mrs Dale Mrs Dale (agitated agitated). You have them with you now? Ventnor Ventnor (embarrassed embarrassed). Why not? One never knows.
EDITH WHARTON: COPY: A DIALOGUE (1900) Text Text 0 0: Quite difficult to interpret. Text Text 1 1: The impression is that Ventnor is still hopelessly in love whilst Mrs Dale simply plays with him. Text Text 2 2 (original version): The impression is that Ventnor is trying to deceive Mrs Dale who is caught unaware. In the process, readers discover that the purpose of Mr Vender s visit is to retrieve the love letters he wrote to Mrs Dale in order to use them in his memoirs.
CONCLUSIONS ON PVF paralinguistic encoding is to be regarded as a dynamic process, The analysis of short extracts shows that PVFs do not work at sentence but at discourse level. PVFs can be forward or backward pointing and apply to smaller or longer stretches of dialogue. A particular paralinguistic comment may remain active over a number of turns or simply apply to the chunk of DS it is attached to. From this perspective, a quantitative analysis is often insufficient and may very turn out to be misleading.
3. THE DYNAMICS OF CONVERSATION Conversation Analysis Conversation Analysis is based on Politeness Penelope Brown & Stephen Levinson (1987) Often criticised but still a major reference. Based on Erving Goffman s notion of FACE FACE FACE: the public self-image of a person POLITENESS POLITENESS: the means employed to show awareness of another person s face. FACE WANT FACE WANT: people s expectations concerning their public self-image. FACE THREATENING ACT FACE THREATENING ACT: Something said that represents a threat to one s expectations regharding self-image FACE SAVING ACT FACE SAVING ACT: Something said to lessen a possible threat. It is expected that every speaker attempts to respect the FACE WANT of others. There are many ways of performing FACE SAVING ACTS.
NEGATIVE & POSITIVE FACE Negative face Negative face The need to be independent, to have freedom of action, not to be imposed upon by others Negative politeness Negative politeness appeals to the negative face: to show deference, to emphasise the importance of the other s time or concern. It includes apology for imposition or interruption. Could you modal I m sorry to bother you but Might I ask (question) It gives you interlocutor the opportunity to refuse without the same refusing effect. Negative politeness is part of DEFERENCE STRATEGY (emphasis on independence). DEFERENCE STRATEGY
NEGATIVE & POSITIVE FACE Positive face Positive face The need to be accepted, liked, to be treated as a member of the same group. Need to be connected . Positive politeness Positive politeness appeals to the positive face. You use Face saing acts concerned with solidarity, you emphasise the fact you want the same thing as the other person. It is often preceded by some getting to know you talk. It is still risky (a refusal is possible). Positive politeness is part of SOLIDARITY STRATEGY of nicknames, shared dialect, slang + we , let s including theinterlocutor. SOLIDARITY STRATEGY. Use
ON & OFF RECORD SAY SOMETHING OFF AND ON RECORD SAY SOMETHING OFF AND ON RECORD Off record statements Off record statements are not addressed: I wonder where I put my pen The other can act as if he hadn t heard. On record statements On record statements are addressed: I haven t got a pen Bald on record Bald on record statements statements: Give me a pen . Often though, it is followed by mitigating devices such as please , would you etc. mitigating devices
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