Environmental Physicochemical Analysis for Water and Soil
Environmental physicochemical analysis
of
water,
wastewater,
soil and
air
Learning objectives:
•
Upon
completion
of
this
chapter,
the student should have
knowledge
of the
following:
Describe water quality
types
Explore water
impurity
and the need
for
quantification
Able to
relate
different
units of
measurement for water
analysis
Explain proper units and conversions in
water,
soil
and air
measurement.
1.
Introduction
S
u
b
s
tanc
e
s
i
n
troduc
e
d
i
n
t
o
t
h
e
env
i
ron
m
e
n
t
are
distributed
among the environmental
compartments:
water
(hydrosphere),
soil, rock (lithosphere),
and
air (atmosphere),
as
well
as
among
the
organisms
living
on
them
(biosphere).
•
Only if
we
know the
type
and quantity
of
these
contaminants
can
we
protect
the
environment
and
its
inhabitants
.
Water
•
Currently,
~ 900
million people
suffer
from drinking
water
shortages,
circa
2.6
billion people
live
without safe sanitation
and
approximately 2.5
billion people have
no
wastewater
treatment.
•
Five
million
people
die
every
year
as
a
result
of
deficient hygienic
conditions,
most
of them
children
•
About 1.5 million children die each
year
due
to
water-borne
diseases
(UN
2010)
•
These issues particularly
affect emerging
and developing
countries
•
As
reported by Ethiopian
demographics
profile
2018
•
As
its
physical state changes, water passes
through all
spheres.
•
It
is the
most frequently analyzed environmental
compartment
and is
also the easiest, because –
unlike air
or
soil –
it
already exists
in the liquid
phase.
•
If
drinking
water samples are to be analyzed,
sample preparation is usually not necessary;
however,
it is
usually unavoidable
in
the
case
of
wastewater
samples.
Water
(Cont’d)
Water
(Cont’d)
Sustainable Development Goals:
Targets
related
to
WASH
•
3.3
by 2030
end the epidemics of
AIDS,
tuberculosis,
malaria,
and neglected
tropical diseases and combat hepatitis,
water-borne diseases,
and other
communicable
diseases.
•
3.9
by 2030
substantially
reduce
the number
of
deaths and illnesses
from
hazardous
chemicals
and
air,
water
, and soil pollution and
contamination.
•
6.1
by
2030
achieve
universal
and
equitable
access
to
safe
and
affordable
drinking water for
all
.
•
6.2
by 2030
achieve access
to
adequate and
equitable sanitation
and
hygiene
for
all, and end
open
defecation,
paying
special attention
to
the
needs
of women
and
girls and those
in
vulnerable
situations.
•
6.a
by 2030
expand international cooperation and capacity-building support
to
developing countries in
water
and
sanitation
related
activities
and programmes,
including water harvesting, desalination,
water
efficiency,
wastewater
treatment,
recycling
and reuse
technologies
.
•
6.b
support
and
strengthen
the
participation
of
local
communities
for
improving
water and sanitation
management
.
Challe
n
ges
•
Financing and budgeting
process
Insufficient
financing
Generating revenue through
tariffs
insufficient
funding
for
operation and
maintenance
•
Water
governance
Deficient institutional and administrative structures, lack
of
political will, accountability and lack
of
stakeholder
engagement
•
Water
safety
Ensuring
safe
drinking
water in
the
home is
difficult
Soil
m
u
l
ti
p
hase
•
The
soil
is
a
hyd
ros
p
h
e
re,
a
t
m
o
s
p
h
ere,
lithosphere,
s
y
stem
in
which
t
h
e
and
biosphere
exist
side
by
side.
•
It serves
as
a source
of
water
and
nutrients
for
plants, is a
habitat for a
large
number of
organisms,
and is
an
important carbon
sink.
•
Harmful soil pollutants
can easily
enter the human body
through
plants and
animals.
•
The constituents of
soil
are
very
difficult
to
access
and
difficult
to mobilize. Sample preparation usually
involves
extraction and
digestion
procedures.
Soil
(Cont’d)
The
soil
forms the key
basis
of
life
for
plants,
animals, and
humans.
Harmful substances
contained in
it
come
mainly from weathering,
cultivation,
or the
air.
Air
•
The atmosphere is
an
important thermal
buffer against
space, and
protects
the earth from cosmic
radiation.
•
It is
the
place where clouds are formed and water is
present there in all its physical
states.
•
Thus
it is a
heterogeneous
mixture
of
finely dispersed,
solid
or liquid
particles in a gas
(air).
Its constituents are
characterized
by
extreme
mobility,
enter our
organism
easily
through breathing, and influence the climate
and
weather.
•
Filter
methods, and aerosol and
gas
collectors bring
the
constituents
of air
into
the aqueous phase, which
is preferable for
chemical
analysis.
Air
(Cont’d)
O
n
ave
r
age
about
300
,
000
m
3
air
p
ass
t
h
rou
g
h
a
per
son
’
s
respir
a
t
o
ry
s
yst
em
in the course of a
lifetime.
In
this
way,
impurities
in
the atmosphere
directly enter
the
lungs.
Especially
dangerous are
the
aerosols
that
contain
particles with diameters
of
less than
10 μm
– also
know
as particulate
matter.
1.1. General
Facts
•
Currently there are a growing desire to restore
and
protect
the
env’t
from
degrading
effects
of
all forms of
pollution
:
air,
water,
soil,
and
noise
•
Three major questions usually arise when a particular type
of
pollution
has been
identified:
1.
How serious is
the
pollution?
2.
Is there standard procedure
for
sampling
water,
air and
soil?
3.
Is
possible
to quantify pollutants?
&
•
This course
is
basically focuses
on
demonstration
of
laboratory equipment and
apparatus,
sampling, preservation,
analysis and interpretation
of the
results.
1.2.
DEFINING
ENVIRONMENTAL
WATER
QUALITY
•
WQ
means
d/t things to
d/t
people, depending
on
their
goals
for the
water.
•
The
env’tal
health student express high-quality water
as
water in a pristine env’nt free
from
diseases causing
pathogens and
chemical
sb/ces.
1
.
2
.
1
W
A
TE
R
-
U
SE
CLAS
S
I
F
I
C
A
T
IO
NS
AND
W
A
T
ER
QUALITY
STANDARDS
•
In human
history,
rivers,
lakes, springs, & wells
from
which
one
can
directly drink could readily meet almost
all
needs
for
high quality
water.
Cont’d
•
But
now the
water that is used
for
drinking water
supplies,
irrigation, and
industry,
…, needs treatment to
become
acceptable.
•
High-quality water is
not
pure;
it
just contains amounts
of
impurities
too small
to
be
harmful to its intended
uses.
•
Many impurities in water are
beneficial:
carbonate
(CO
3
-2
)
and bicarbonate
(HCO
3
-
)
hardness
and
alkalinity
dissolved
CO
2
,
and
O
2
•
Ou
t
si
d
e
a
che
m
ical
lab
o
rator
y
,
extremely
p
u
re
wat
e
r
generally is
not
desirable
•
What
is
water
impurity?
•
It is
any
sub/ce
in
water that is not derived from a
water molecule
only:
harmful, beneficial, or
neutral
•
A water pollutant
or
contaminant is any substance in
water that
is
to
be
harmful
to the
water’s
intended
uses.
•
There are three
d/t
types
of
water quality standards set
by
U.S. state & federal regulations but there is
only
effluent
&
drinking
water regulations in
Ethiopia:
1.
Surface and groundwater
standards
2.
Effluent
standards
3.
Drinking water
standards
Cont’d
1.3. SOURCES OF
WATER
IMPURITIES
A.
Natural
sources
B.
Human
caused
•
Impurities
can
be divided into three
classes:
•
reg
u
lated
i
m
p
u
ri
t
ies
(
p
o
l
l
u
t
a
n
t
s)
consid
e
red
har
m
f
ul
or
aesthetically
objectionable
•
unregulated
impurities
not
considered harmful,
and
•
un
regulat
e
d
i
m
p
u
rities
not
yet
evalu
a
ted
f
o
r
t
h
eir
potential
health
risks.
1.4.
WHAT
IMPURITIES ARE
PRESENT?
•
The chemical content
of
a water sample
is found
by
qualitative
chemical
analysis
•
Qualitative analysis identifies
the
chemical species
present
WORKING WITH
CONCENTRATIONS
•
Unfortunately,
there is
not one
all-purpose method
for
expressing
concentration
•
The best
choice
of concentration units depends in part on
the
medium
(liquid, solid, or
gas), and in part
on the
purpose of the
measurement
WORKING WITH
CONCENTRATIONS
(Cont’d)
•
In
wat
e
r
sa
m
p
l
es,
i
m
pu
r
i
ty
concent
r
ations
are
typically reported
as:
•
milligrams
(mg)
•
micrograms (
µ
g),
or
•
nano
g
ra
m
s
(ng)
of
i
m
p
u
rity
pe
r
l
i
ter
(L)
of
w
a
ter
sample.
1 mg/L =
10
-3
g/L = 1 part per million
(ppm)
1
µg/L=10
-6
g/L = 1 part per
billion
(ppb)
1 ng/L =
10
-9
g/L = 1 part per
trillion
(ppt)
•
In
soil samples, impurity concentrations
are
typically reported as
milligrams, micrograms,
or
nanograms
of
impurity per kilogram
of
soil
sample
•
1
mg/kg
=
10
-3
g/kg = 1 part per
million
(ppm)
•
1 µg/kg =
10
-6
g/kg = 1 part per billion
(ppb)
•
1 ng/kg =
10
-9
g/kg = 1 part per
trillion
(ppt)
•
In
gas samples (normally
air
samples), concentrations cannot
be
expressed
as
simply
as in
water or
soils,
because
gas
volumes
and
densities
are
strongly dependent
on
temperature
and
pressure.
WORKING WITH
CONCENTRATIONS
(Cont’d)
Unit of
measurement
for air
analysis
•
Concentrations of air pollutants are commonly expressed
as the mass of pollutant per
unit volume
of
air
mixture, as
mg/m
3
,
g/m
3
,
ng
/m
3
•
1ppm=
0.0001
%
by
volume.
•
The relationship between
ppm
and mg/m
3
depends on the
gas
density,
which in
turn
depends
on:
Temperature
Pressure
Molecular weight of the
pollutant
•
The
ff
expression can be used to convert the
units
b/n ppm and
mg/m
3
at any temp. or
pressure.
mg/m
3
= 273 x ppm x
molecular wt.
x pressure/22.4 x
temperature
Example
1:
Federal standard
limits
hourly carbon dioxide levels
to
0.8
ppm.
Express this concentration in
terms
of
g/m
3
at
27
0
C
and 1
atmospheric
pressure.
Solution
Molecular
weight of
carbondixide
= 12+16 +16 =
44;
Temperature
= 27 +273 =
300K
mg/m
3
=
273 x 0.8 ppm x 44 x 1
atm./
22.4
x 300K;
=
1.43
=>1430
g/m
3
Unit of
measurement
for air analysis
(cont’d)
This chapter delves into the importance of analyzing water, wastewater, soil, and air for environmental protection. It covers topics such as water quality types, impurity exploration, measurement units, and proper conversions. The content highlights the critical need to quantify contaminants in different environmental compartments to safeguard the environment and its inhabitants. Sustainable Development Goals related to water, sanitation, and hygiene are also discussed.
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Environmental physicochemical analysis of water, wastewater, soil and air Learning objectives: Upon completion of this chapter, the student should have knowledge of the following: Describe water qualitytypes Explore water impurity and the need for quantification Able to relate different units of measurement for water analysis Explain proper units and conversions in water, soil and air measurement.
1. Introduction Substances distributed among the environmental compartments: water (hydrosphere), soil, rock (lithosphere), and air (atmosphere), as well as among the organisms living on them (biosphere). Only if we know the type and quantity of these contaminants can we protect the environment and its inhabitants. introduced into the environment are
Water Currently, ~ 900 million people suffer from drinking water shortages, circa 2.6 billion people live without safe sanitation and approximately 2.5 billion people have no wastewater treatment. Five million people die every year as a result of deficient hygienic conditions, most of them children About 1.5 million children die each year due to water-borne diseases (UN 2010) These issues particularly affect emerging and developingcountries As reported by Ethiopian demographics profile 2018 Improved: Urban 93.1% , rural 48.6% and total 57.3% of population Unimproved: Urban 6.9%; Rural 51.4% and total 42.7% of population Drinking water source
Water (Contd) As its physical state changes, water passes through all spheres. It is the most frequently analyzed environmental compartment and is also the easiest, because unlike air or soil it already exists in the liquid phase. If drinking water samples are to be analyzed, sample preparation is usually not necessary; however, it is usually unavoidable in the case of wastewater samples.
Water (Contd) Parameter (Surfacewater) BOD5 Chloride Chlorine, Residual Chromium Conductivity Dissolved oxygen Fluoride Nitrate Limit < 5 mg/l O2 250 mg/l Cl 5 g/l as HOCl 50 g/l Cr 1000 S/Cm (@ 20 C) minimum 6 mg/l O2 1.0 mg/l F 50 mg/l NO3
Sustainable Development Goals: Targets related to WASH 3.3 by 2030 end the epidemics of AIDS, tuberculosis, malaria, and neglected tropical diseases and combat hepatitis, water-borne diseases, and other communicable diseases. 3.9 by 2030 substantially reduce the number of deaths and illnesses from hazardous chemicals and air, water, and soil pollution andcontamination. 6.1 by 2030 achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all. 6.2 by 2030 achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all, and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerablesituations. 6.a by 2030 expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing countries in water and sanitation related activities and programmes, including water harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse technologies. 6.b support and strengthen the participation of local communities for improving water and sanitationmanagement.
Challenges Financing and budgeting process Insufficient financing Generating revenue through tariffs insufficient funding for operation and maintenance Watergovernance Deficient institutional and administrative structures, lack of political will, accountability and lack of stakeholder engagement Water safety Ensuring safe drinking water in the home is difficult
Soil The hydrosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, exist side by side. soil is a multiphase system in which the and biosphere It serves as a source of water and nutrients for plants, is a habitat for a large number of organisms, and is an important carbon sink. Harmful soil pollutants can easily enter the human body through plants and animals. The constituents of soil are very difficult to access and difficult to mobilize. Sample involves extraction and digestion procedures. preparation usually
Soil (Contd) (mg/kg dry weight) Parameter The soil forms the key basis of life for plants, 500 20 40 0.5 1 Chromium, total Chromium (VI) Lead Cadmium Mercury animals, and humans. Harmful substances contained in it come mainly from weathering, Nickel 30 cultivation, or the air.
Air The atmosphere is an important thermal buffer against space, and protects the earth from cosmic radiation. It is the place where clouds are formed and water is present there in all its physical states. Thus it is a heterogeneous mixture of finely dispersed, solid or liquid particles in a gas (air). Its constituents are characterized by extreme mobility, enter our organism easily through breathing, and influence the climate and weather. Filter methods, and aerosol and gas collectors bring the constituents of air into the aqueous phase, which is preferable for chemical analysis.
Air (Contd) Parameter Standard [ g/m3] Average time On average about 300,000 m3 air pass person s respiratory system in the course of a lifetime. SO2 500 125 50 200 40 100000 60000 10000 10 minutes 24 hrs 1 year 1 hr 1 year 15 minutes 30 minutes 8 hrs through a NO2 In this way, impurities in the atmosphere directly enter the lungs. CO 120 50 150 15 65 0.5 8 hrs 1 year 24 hrs 1 year 24 hrs 1 year Especially dangerous are the aerosols particles with diameters of less than 10 m also know as particulate matter. PM10 that contain PM2.5 Lead
1.1. General Facts Currently there are a growing desire to restore and protect the env t from degrading effects of all forms of pollution: air,water,soil, and noise Three major questions usually arise when a particular type of pollution has been identified: 1. How serious is the pollution? Is there standard procedure for sampling water, air and soil? 3. Is possible to quantify pollutants? & This course is basically focuses on demonstration of laboratory equipment and apparatus, sampling, preservation, analysis and interpretation of the results. 2.
1.2. DEFINING ENVIRONMENTAL WATERQUALITY WQ means d/t things to d/t people, depending on their goals for the water. The env tal health student express high-quality water as water in a pristine env nt free from diseases causing pathogens and chemical sb/ces. 1.2.1 W A TER-USE CLASSIFICA TIONS AND W A TER QUALITYSTANDARDS In human history, rivers, lakes, springs, & wells from which one can directly drink could readily meet almost all needs for high quality water.
Contd But now the water that is used for drinking water supplies, irrigation, and industry, , needs treatment to become acceptable. High-quality water is not pure; it just contains amounts of impurities too small to be harmful to its intended uses. Many impurities in water are beneficial: carbonate (CO3-2) and bicarbonate (HCO3-) hardness and alkalinity dissolved CO2, and O2 Outside a chemical laboratory, extremely pure water generally is not desirable What is water impurity?
Contd It is any sub/ce in water that is not derived from a water molecule only: harmful, beneficial, or neutral A water pollutant or contaminant is any substance in water that is to be harmful to the water s intended uses. There are three d/t types of water quality standards set by U.S. state & federal regulations but there is only effluent & drinking water regulations in Ethiopia: 1. Surface and groundwater standards 2. Effluent standards 3. Drinking water standards
1.3. SOURCES OF WATERIMPURITIES A. Natural sources B. Human caused Impurities can be divided into three classes: regulated impurities (pollutants) considered harmful or aesthetically objectionable unregulated impurities not considered harmful, and unregulated impurities not yet evaluated for their potential health risks.
1.4. WHAT IMPURITIES AREPRESENT? The chemical content of a water sample is found by qualitative chemical analysis Qualitative analysis identifies the chemical species present WORKING WITH CONCENTRATIONS Unfortunately, there is not one all-purpose method for expressing concentration The best choice of concentration units depends in part on the medium (liquid, solid, or gas), and in part on the purpose of the measurement
WORKING WITH CONCENTRATIONS (Contd) In water samples, impurity concentrations are typically reported as: milligrams (mg) micrograms ( g), or nanograms (ng) of impurity per liter (L) of water sample. 1 mg/L = 10-3 g/L = 1 part per million(ppm) 1 g/L=10-6 g/L = 1 part per billion(ppb) 1 ng/L = 10-9 g/L = 1 part per trillion(ppt)
WORKING WITH CONCENTRATIONS (Contd) In soil samples, impurity concentrations are typically reported as milligrams, micrograms, or nanograms of impurity per kilogram of soil sample 1 mg/kg = 10-3g/kg = 1 part per million(ppm) 1 g/kg = 10-6g/kg = 1 part per billion(ppb) 1 ng/kg = 10-9g/kg = 1 part per trillion(ppt) In gas samples (normally air samples), concentrations cannot be expressed as simply as in water or soils, because gas volumes and densities are strongly dependent on temperature and pressure.
Unit of measurement for airanalysis Concentrations of air pollutants are commonly expressed as the mass of pollutant per unit volume of air mixture, as mg/m3, g/m3, ng /m3 1ppm= 0.0001 % by volume. The relationship between ppm and mg/m3depends on the gas density, which in turn depends on: Temperature Pressure Molecular weight of the pollutant
Unit of measurement for air analysis(contd) The ff expression can be used to convert the units b/n ppm and mg/m3 at any temp. orpressure. mg/m3 = 273 x ppm x molecular wt. x pressure/22.4 xtemperature Example 1: Federal standard limits hourly carbon dioxide levelsto 0.8 ppm. Express this concentration in terms of g/m3 at 270C and 1 atmospheric pressure. Solution Molecular weight of carbondixide = 12+16 +16 = 44; Temperature = 27 +273 = 300K mg/m3 = 273 x 0.8 ppm x 44 x 1 atm./22.4x 300K; = 1.43 =>1430 g/m3
