Compound Words and Phrases in Morphology & Syntax

Ch6  Compound words, Blends

and Phrasal words

ENGT 243

Morphology & Syntax

6.1 Compounds versus phrases

Compounds

Compounds

, words formed by combining roots.

Phrasal words

, items that have the internal structure of

phrases but function syntactically as words

How can we tell, then, whether a pair of such roots

constitutes

a 

compound word

or

a 

phrase

 that is a unit of sentence structure rather than a

complex word

?

6.1 Compounds versus phrases

A definite answer is not always possible

, 

but 

t

here are

enough clear cases to show that the distinction between

compounds and phrases is valid

.

Consider the expressions

•

a green ‘house

, with its literal meaning.

•

Vs.

•

a ‘greenhouse

, meaning a glass structure (not

usually green in colour!) where delicate plants are reared.

6.1 Compounds versus phrases

I.

There is a difference in 

sound corresponding 

sound corresponding 

to the difference in meaning.

 (Stress)

Phrases                                                                                  Compounds

•

(1) 

(1) 

black board                                          vs.                blackboard

black board                                          vs.                blackboard

•

‘board that is black’                                                       ‘board for writing on’

•

(2) 

(2) 

silk worm                                                vs.             silkworm

silk worm                                                vs.             silkworm

•

‘worm made of silk (e.g. a soft toy)’                          ‘caterpillar that spins silk’

•

(3) hair net                                                   vs.               hairnet

(3) hair net                                                   vs.               hairnet

•

‘net made of hair’                                                          ‘net for covering hair’

•

(4) 

(4) 

white house                                           vs.               (the) White House

white house                                           vs.               (the) White House

•

‘house that is white’                                                   ‘residence of the US

                                                                                               President’

•

(5) toy factory                                             vs.             toy factory

(5) toy factory                                             vs.             toy factory

•

‘factory that is a toy                                               ‘factory where toys are made’

6.1 Compounds versus phrases

II. Apart from stress, a second criterion traditionally

used for distinguishing compounds from phrases is

semantic

semantic

: a compound tends to have a meaning

that is more or less idiosyncratic or unpredictable.

•

This is true of most of the compounds in (1)–(5).

This criterion must 

be treated with caution. 

be treated with caution. 

?

•

All the same, words (compound words) are more

likely to be lexical items than phrases are.

6.2 Compound verbs

Verbs formed by compounding 

are much less usual 

are much less usual 

than

verbs derived by affixation.

A variety of types exist according to their structure:

A variety of types exist according to their structure:

(6) verb–verb (VV): 

stir-fry

, 

freeze-dry

(7) noun–verb (NV): 

hand-wash

, 

air-condition

, 

steam-

clean

(8) adjective–verb (AV): 

dry-clean

, 

whitewash

(9) preposition–verb (PV): 

underestimate

, 

outrun

,

overcook

6.2 Compound verbs

Only the PV type is really common.

For example,

-

out- 

can create a transitive verb meaning ‘outdo in

Xing’ from any verb denoting a competitive or

potentially competitive activity (e.g. 

outsail

, 

outsing

,

outswim

).

-

new words with 

over- 

can also be created freely (e.g.

overpolish

, 

overcriticise

, 

overbleach

).

6.2 Compound verbs

You will notice that

-

All these compounds have a verb as the 

rightmost

element.

-

ALSO 

The activity 

denoted by the compound as whole is a

variety of the activity 

denoted by that rightmost element

.

These compounds are 

right-headed

right-headed

, the rightmost element

being the 

head

.

Most English compounds are 

Most English compounds are 

right-headed

right-headed

, but not all

, but not all

, as we

shall see in Section 6.6.

6.3 Compound adjectives

Examples of right-headed compound adjectives:

(10) noun–adjective (NA): 

sky-high

, 

coal-black

, 

oil-rich

(11) adjective–adjective (AA): 

grey-green

, 

squeaky-clean

, 

red-

hot

(12) preposition–adjective (PA): 

underfull

, 

overactive

It is the type with the preposition 

over

over

as its first element that

seems 

most productive,

most productive,

with the meaning ‘too X’

with the meaning ‘too X’

overindignant

, 

oversmooth

.

6.3 Compound adjectives

In 

overactive

overactive

at (12), 

the head 

the head 

of the compound is

the adjective 

the adjective 

active 

active 

derived from the verb 

act.

•

In structure

This adjective is not a mere string of morphemes

(

over 

+ 

act 

+ 

-ive

),

but rather a nested structure:

but rather a nested structure:

[over[act-ive]].

[over[act-ive]].

6.3 Compound adjectives

Corresponding to 

the VV verbs 

the VV verbs 

at (2),

adjectives with a VA structure 

would resemble a 

hypothetical

hypothetical

-

‘float-light’ 

‘light enough to float’

-

‘sing-happy’ 

‘happy enough to sing’.

One 

One 

actual

actual

 example

 example

 ‘

fail-safe

 ‘designed to return to a safe condition if it fails or goes

wrong’.

However, other such compounds hardly exist, even though it is easy

enough to find plausible meanings for them.

This reflects the relative reluctance of verbs to participate in

compounding generally in English.

6.3 Compound adjectives

All the compounds in (10)–(12) are right-

headed.

There are also a few compound adjectives that

are not right-headed, but we will discuss them

along with all headless compounds in Section

6.5.

6.4 Compound nouns

It is with 

nouns that compounding 

nouns that compounding 

really comes into its

own as a word forming process in English.

Examples

Examples

(13) verb–noun (VN): 

swearword

, 

drophammer

, 

playtime

(14) noun–noun (NN): 

hairnet

, 

mosquito net

, 

butterfly

net

, 

hair restorer

(15) adjective–noun (AN): 

blackboard

, 

greenstone

,

faintheart

(16) preposition–noun (PN): 

in-group

, 

outpost

, 

overcoat

6.4 Compound nouns

•

All of these have the main stress on the left – a

characteristic identified in Section 6.1 as important

for distinguishing compound nouns from noun

phrases. (The fact that 

hair restorer

, 

butterfly net

and 

mosquito net 

are spelled with a space does not

affect the fact that, from the grammatical point of

view, they each constitute one complex word.)

•

Most of these are also right-headed,

6.4 Compound nouns

Consider the four examples at (14).

 hairnet, mosquito net, butterfly net, hair restorer

 hairnet, mosquito net, butterfly net, hair restorer

Does each one have a precise interpretation that is clearly

Does each one have a precise interpretation that is clearly

the most natural, on the basis of the meanings of their two

the most natural, on the basis of the meanings of their two

components?

components?

For 

hair restorer

hair restorer

, the answer is surely yes: it most naturally

denotes a substance for restoring hair growth.

On the other hand, for 

hairnet

hairnet

, 

butterfly net 

butterfly net 

and 

mosquito

mosquito

net

net

the answer is less clear.

6.4 Compound nouns

A 

hairnet 

hairnet 

is for keeping one’s hair in place

A 

butterfly net 

butterfly net 

is for catching butterflies

A 

mosquito net 

mosquito net 

is for keeping mosquitoes away?

This information does not reside in the meaning of 

net

,

nor in the meanings of 

hair

, 

butterfly 

and 

mosquito

.

The most that one can conclude from these individual

meanings is that each is a 

net

net

 that has something to do

with hair, butterflies and mosquitoes respectively.

6.4 Compound nouns

•

Arriving at the precise meanings of these

compounds depends on our knowledge of the

world (that some people collect butterflies, and

that mosquitoes can carry disease) rather than

on purely linguistic knowledge.

•

The difference in precision 

The difference in precision 

with which we can

interpret 

hair restorer 

hair restorer 

on the one hand and

hairnet

hairnet

etc.

6.4 Compound nouns

restorer

restorer

 in 

hair restorer 

hair restorer 

is derived from a verb 

(

(

restore

restore

)

)

Verbs

impose expectations and requirements on the noun phrases

that

accompany them in the sentence.

For example,

sleep

sleep

John sleeps                                         

John sleeps                                         

NP as a S

NP as a S

eat

eat

John eats strawberries                    

John eats strawberries                    

NP as an O

NP as an O

give

give

John gave Anne the book.               

John gave Anne the book.               

NP as an Od

NP as an Od

These expected or required 

nominal concomitants 

to a verb are called its

arguments

6.4 Compound nouns

When the head of a NN compound is derived

from a verb, as 

restorer

restorer

is, the most natural way

to interpret the whole compound is quite

precise:

The first element 

(hair) 

(hair) 

expresses the object

argument of the verb 

(restore) 

(restore) 

(that is, the

person or thing that undergoes the action).

6.4 Compound nouns

Here are some more compounds whose second

element is derived from a verb:

(17) 

sign-writer, slum clearance, crime prevention,

sign-writer, slum clearance, crime prevention,

wish-fulfilment

wish-fulfilment

The most natural interpretation is clear.



Crime prevention 

Crime prevention 

means ‘prevention of crime’

X  The meaning ‘use of crime for preventive purposes’ –

seems contrived and unnatural.

6.4 Compound nouns

Primary Compounds

Primary Compounds

NN compound like 

hairnet

hairnet

or 

mosquito net

mosquito net

The right-hand noun is not derived from a verb and

whose interpretation is not precisely predictable on a

purely linguistic basis, a 

primary 

or 

root

compound

.

Secondary Compounds

Secondary Compounds

NN compound like 

hair

hair

restorer

restorer

or 

slum clearance

slum clearance

The first element is interpreted as the object of the verb

6.4 Compound nouns

Although verbs are relatively rare as elements in compounds in

English (the 

swearword 

pattern is unusual),

Verbal compounds, in the sense just defined, are common.

Secondary compounds are certainly right-headed

•

Crime prevention 

Crime prevention 

denotes a kind of prevention

•

Wish-fulfilment

Wish-fulfilment

denotes a kind of fulfilment.

In this respect they are like most NN compounds and most

compounds generally – but not all.

6.4 Compound nouns

Although verbs are relatively rare as elements in

compounds in English (the 

swearword 

pattern is

unusual),

Verbal compounds, in the sense just defined, are

common.

Secondary compounds are certainly right-headed

•

Crime prevention 

Crime prevention 

denotes a kind of prevention

•

Wish-fulfilment

Wish-fulfilment

denotes a kind of fulfilment.

In this respect they are like most NN compounds and

most compounds generally – but not all.

Headed and headless compounds

Greenstone

Greenstone

 is a kind of stone

Blackboard

Blackboard

 is a kind of board

Faintheart

Faintheart

 is not a kind of heart but a kind of person.

Although 

heart

heart

is a noun, it is not appropriate to call

heart 

heart 

the head of the compound.

Rather, 

faintheart 

faintheart 

is headless, in the sense that its status

as a noun is not determined by either of its two

components.

Headed and headless compounds

A few VN-type compound nouns resemble

secondary compounds in that the noun at the

right is interpreted as the object of the verb:

•

(18) 

pickpocket, killjoy, cutpurse

•

These are headless. Why?

•

A 

pickpocket 

is not a kind of pocket.

1. Headless compounds

The fact that 

heart

heart

and 

pocket

pocket

are nouns is

really irrelevant to the fact that 

faintheart

faintheart

and

pickpocket

pickpocket

are nouns too.

We should expect there to be some 

headless

headless

nouns

nouns

 in which 

the second element is not a

the second element is not a

noun at all.

noun at all.

Also, 

headless adjectives 

headless adjectives 

in which 

the second

the second

element is not an adjective.

element is not an adjective.

2. Headless compounds

Some nouns consist of a 

verb and a preposition or adverb

:

(19) 

take-off, sell-out, wrap-up, sit-in

take-off, sell-out, wrap-up, sit-in

The nouns at (19) can be seen as a case of conversion, where

the base is a 

verb + another word 

verb + another word 

(sometimes constituting a

lexical item), as illustrated in (20):

(20)

a. The plane 

took off 

took off 

at noon.

b. The chairman 

wrapped

wrapped

 the meeting 

up

up

.

c. The students 

sat in 

sat in 

during the discussion.

3. Headless compounds

As for headless adjectives, there are quite a number

consisting of a preposition and a noun:

(21)

overland

overland

, 

, 

in-house

in-house

, 

, 

with-profits

with-profits

, 

, 

offshore

offshore

, 

, 

down-marke

down-marke

t,

t,

upscale

upscale

, 

, 

underweight

underweight

, 

, 

over-budget

over-budget

The adjectival status of these compounds can often be

confirmed by their appropriateness in comparative contexts

and with the modifier 

very

very

:

(22)

a. They live in a

very

very

down-market

down-market

  neighborhood.

b. This year’s expenditure is even 

more

more

over-budget

over-budget

 than last

year’s

Headed and headless compounds

The fact that the word class of these 

headless

headless

compounds is not determined by any element

inside them has led some grammarians to call

them 

exocentric

exocentric

. (

Having a ‘centre’ outside

themselves, figuratively speaking.)

According to this approach, 

headed

headed

 compounds

would be regarded as having an internal

‘centre’; and, sure enough, they are sometimes

called 

endocentric

endocentric

.

Compounding

1. Endocentric Compounds

a.

frying pan      dancing shoes

b.

pan opener    candlestick maker

-

Their meaning can be inferred from the

meaning of the words they contain.

-

The word on the left serves as a modifier.

Compounding

2. Exocentric compounds

The meaning is not compositional. They must be

listed in the lexicon. They must be memorized.

Compounding

3. Endocentric OR Exocentric 

(According to context)

Knee-deep 

(adj.) 

can mean

-

‘

sunk right up the knees

’

    (literally) compositional meaning 

 endocentric

-

‘deeply involved with’

(figurative) noncompositional 

exocentric

Blends and acronyms

Blends

Blends

:  a kind of compound where at least one

component is reproduced only partially.

smog

smog

, blended from 

smoke 

and 

fog

;

Partial blends

Partial blends

, where only one component is

truncated

talkathon

talkathon

(from 

talk 

plus 

marathon

)

cheeseburger

cheeseburger

(from 

cheese 

plus 

hamburger

).

Blends and acronyms

Acronyms

Acronyms

: 

: 

a 

a 

kind of truncation that a component of a blend

can undergo reduction to just one sound (or letter), usually

the first. (

Blends made up of initial letters

Blends made up of initial letters

)

•

NATO 

(for 

North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

)

•

ANZAC 

(for 

Australian and New Zealand Army Corps

)

•

RAM 

(for 

random access memory

)

•

SCSI 

(pronounced 

scuzzy

, from 

small computer systems

interface

)

•

AIDS

 (from 

acquired immune deficiency syndrome

)

•

Intermediate between an acronym and a blend is sonar

(from sound navigation and ranging).

Blends and acronyms

Not any string of capital letters represents an

acronym.

If the conventional way of reading the string is

by pronouncing the name of each letter in turn,

as with 

USA 

and 

RP 

(standing for the ‘Received

Pronunciation’ of British English), then it is not

an acronym but an 

abbreviation

.

Blends and acronyms

Blending

Blending

 and 

acronymy

acronymy

 are in active use for the

creation of new vocabulary.

However, 

they differ 

they differ 

from 

derivational affixation

derivational affixation

and 

normal compounding 

normal compounding 

in being

-

more or less self-conscious,

-

and are concentrated in areas where the demand

for new noun vocabulary is greatest, such as

(currently) information technology.

Compounds containing bound

combining forms

Most of the compounds that we have looked at so far

Most of the compounds that we have looked at so far

involve roots that are 

involve roots that are 

free forms

free forms

.

.

But the vocabulary of English, especially in scientific and

technical areas, includes a huge repertoire of compounds

that are made up of bound roots, known as 

combining

combining

forms

forms

,

(23) 

anthropology, sociology, cardiogram,

anthropology, sociology, cardiogram,

electrocardiogram, retrograde, retrospect, plantigrade

electrocardiogram, retrograde, retrospect, plantigrade

Compounds containing bound

combining forms

For most of these, the meaning of the whole is clearly determinable

from that of the parts.

anthrop(o)- 

anthrop(o)- 

‘human’ + 

‘human’ + 

-(o)logy 

-(o)logy 

‘science or study’

‘science or study’

‘science or study of human beings

‘science or study of human beings

’

planti- 

planti- 

‘sole (of foot)’ + 

‘sole (of foot)’ + 

-grade 

-grade 

‘walking’

‘walking’

‘

walking on the soles of the feet

walking on the soles of the feet

’.

This semantic predictability is crucial to the coining of new technical

terms using these elements.

Phrasal words

In some of the compounds, relationships are

expressed are the same as ones expressed in

syntax:

the 

verb–object relationship 

verb–object relationship 

between 

hair

hair

and

restore

restore

in

hair restorer

hair restorer

Phrasal words

The way in which the verb–object relationship is expressed in

a compound is quite different from how it is expressed in

syntax.

The two words appear in the opposite order.

This substance restores hair (sentence structure)

This substance restores hair (sentence structure)

NOT

*This substance hair-restores.(compound word structure)

*This substance hair-restores.(compound word structure)

There is a clear difference between

compound word structure 

compound word structure 

and 

sentence structure

sentence structure

Phrasal words

There are also complex items that function as

words, yet whose internal structure is that of a

clause or phrase rather than of a compound.

phrasal words

phrasal words

jack-in-the-box

jack-in-the-box

noun

noun

The noun  

jack-in-the-box

jack-in-the-box

Structurally

has the appearance of a noun phrase

has the appearance of a noun phrase

parallel to the phrases

people in the street

people in the street

or

(a) book on the shelf

(a) book on the shelf

However

it forms its plural by suffixing 

-s

NOT

NOT

 to

the head noun

As in

(

(

books 

books 

on the shelf 

)

but

to the whole expression:

jack-in-the-boxes

jack-in-the-boxes

as in

They jumped up and down like

They jumped up and down like

 jack-in-the-boxes

 jack-in-the-boxes

.

.

NOT

 X 

‘

jacks

-in-the-box 

’

Though structurally a phrase, it behaves as a

Though structurally a phrase, it behaves as a

word.

word.

brother

brother

-in-law

forms its plural by affixing 

-s 

not

to the whole expression but to

the head noun:

brothers

brothers

-in-law

.

Despite its hyphens

Despite its hyphens

brother-in-law

brother-in-law

is NOT a word

but a 

phrase

phrase

(although also a lexical item)

Phrasal words

Can phrases other than noun phrases

Can phrases other than noun phrases

constitute phrasal words?

constitute phrasal words?

The answer is yes.

Adjectival examples

Adjectival examples

dyed-in-the-wool

dyed-in-the-wool

(a dyed-in-the- wool Republican)

(a dyed-in-the- wool Republican)

couldn’t-care-less

couldn’t-care-less

(a couldn’t-care-less attitude)

(a couldn’t-care-less attitude)

Syntactically,

dyed-in-the-wool

dyed-in-the-wool

looks like an adjective phrase consisting of an adjective

modified by a prepositional phrase

just like

suitable for the party

suitable for the party

devoted to his children

devoted to his children

However,

such a phrase cannot entirely precede the noun it

modifies.

*a devoted to his children man

*a devoted to his children man

*suitable for the party music

*suitable for the party music

we say

a man

a man

devoted to his children

devoted to his children

Or

suitable music for the party

suitable music for the party

Phrasal words

Therefore, the behavior of 

dyed-in-the-woo

dyed-in-the-woo

l 

is that of a

word rather than a phrase.

As for

couldn’t-careless

couldn’t-careless

its structure is that of a verb phrase

but again its behavior is that of an adjective

Your attitude is even more couldn’t-care-less than

Your attitude is even more couldn’t-care-less than

hers!

hers!

)

)