Ophthalmic preparations are essential for eye health, and their formulation requires careful consideration of factors like tonicity, pH adjustment, viscosity-imparting agents, stabilizers, antioxidants, surfactants, and preservatives. The goal is to ensure stability, bioavailability, and efficacy wh

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Methods to adjust the isotonicity of pharmaceutical solutions involve calculations based on colligative properties. This ensures solutions are isotonic to avoid side effects like RBC haemolysis. Class-1 methods include adding NaCl to lower freezing point, while Class-2 methods involve adjusting with

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Osmosis is the process of water molecules diffusing across a semi-permeable membrane, crucial for maintaining cell function. It involves the movement of water from areas of high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached. Special proteins called aquaporins facilitate water trans

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