The French and Indian War: Conflict for Control in North America
The French and Indian War, also known as the Seven Years' War, was a pivotal conflict in North America during the mid-18th century. The battle for control over strategic territories like the Ohio country and the forks of the Ohio River intensified tensions between French and British forces, with Native American tribes caught in the middle. The actions of key figures like General George Washington and the Half King, as well as the establishment of trading posts and forts, set the stage for a larger conflict that would have far-reaching consequences.
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The French and Indian War
Spring 1752 The Stage is Set Britain rules over east coast Canada and Mississippi Valley dominated by French Ohio country = giant prize Both France/Britain wanted three river junction of Ohio, Monongahela, and Allegheny Rivers (Pittsburgh today) Natives consider it their land The Half King (limited authority) willing to negotiate (thinks French are weak although most native groups favor French too many swindled by English) Half King wants to ally with English to get trade goods; already moved to this region and devastated by diseases French encroaching from North, English from East /natives have to take a side Natives now rely on European goods for survival Iroquois League is dominant force in the East and claim sovereignty over the Ohio country At parlay, Half King agrees to let English build trading fort at the forks French claim one side of the river, English the other where do the Indians belong? French want to link Canada and Great Lakes with Louisiana colony; keep British bottled up on east coast ; English will never be able to expand westward if the French dominate the area Speculators from VA come to PA to negotiate with Indians for land. English looking for a foothold in contested region of North America.
Western Pennsylvania 1754 Battle at Jumonville Glen 22 yr old General George Washington sent to order French out of Ohio country. Ordered to drive the French from a contested part of the frontier with force Stumbles across French soldiers on a diplomatic mission; becomes overeager and attacks Washington has Indian allies, French surrender Jumonville scalped by Half King and many other Frenchmen scalped as well Washington cannot foresee the consequences Triggers North American war that spread around the world French and Indian War/Seven Years War
Spring 1754 Trading Post After meeting with the Half King, Virginians begin building a trading post at the forks of the Ohio. French troops force the Virginians to surrender the forks and abandon the building. Half King furious French have humiliated him and he vows revenge Washington sent back to the forks to help, but runs into the Half King who tells him the French took it over. They ally. Half King wants to start trouble between English and French. Scalps Jumonville because of humiliation at forks; knows blame will fall on Washington. Washington withdraws to large meadow; Jumonville s brother comes in pursuit. Build a crude stockade named Fort Necessity Half King refuses to help defend the fort French arrive accompanied by Shawnee, Mingo, and Delaware warriors Encounter French July 3rd. Washington wants to fight face to face on field. French and Indians fire from the woods. Fighting went on until pouring rain; trenches filled with water and ruined ammunition except for a few bayonets. July 4, 1754: French offer terms for surrender, Washington signs. Unable to read French, so asks a Dutch officer to translate. Unknowingly signed a confession to the murder of Jumonville. Half King loses credibility and is dead within a few months
Fall 1754 Iroquois League ponders strategy If they take sides, will fight against other Indians Neutral chance France/Britain taking possession of Ohio country and Iroquois end up with nothing Indians have played Europeans against each other for 100 years; now imperial ambitions force them to choose
Winter 1755 French King Louis XV prepares to defend interests 1,800 troops sent to Canada King George II sends 1,000 redcoats to Virginia in early spring British 3 pronged plan to drive French back to Canada: Strike French in Ohio country (re-take Fort Duquesne) Strike in Northern New York Strike in Nova Scotia
Spring, 1755 General Braddock Career general sent from England; highest ranking British officer on continent Wants to capture Fort Duquesne at forks and move on to Niagara region Meets with colonial governors to ask for money to help pay. Governors reply that their assemblies should be asked, not ordered. Begins march against Fort Duquesne in Fort Cumberland, Maryland Women serve as laundresses, cooks, and nurses Braddock names George Washington chief aide 1/3 of army provincials; not used to drilling/severe punishments for minor infractions Natives in camp area try to get Braddock to invite them to help; Braddock shows no interest and all but seven warriors leave Four mile long army and camp followers leave for Ft. Duquesne 300 axe men clear the way Lug cannon /army through dense forest, steep mountains, and river crossings. 22 miles per week Braddock splits and takes 1,400 men ahead
July, 1755 Monongahela River Crossing/Ft. Duquesne Attack Indian scouts working with French watch Braddock s approach French/Indians ambush English as they cross the Monongahela French fight the Indian way, from the woods Indians/French don t fight in open field as British are used to; British can t keep men in formation British retreat and collide with troops behind them Artillery useless in dense woods Braddock killed Women kidnapped and ransomed by French 21 dead French/Indians vs. 1,000 dead English
PART II EVENTS SET IN MOTION War spread from woods of Pennsylvania to the Caribbean, Africa, Europe, and India Called the Seven Years War in Europe War s outcome decided which of world s two great empires would dominate North America Indians caught in the middle
Britains New General William Johnson; influential Irish merchant with no military qualifications Strong grasp of native culture/politics Close friendship with Mohawk chief (Chief Hendrick); lived among Indians; married Indian woman; has several children of mixed race Johnson s job is to take control of Lake Champlain; needs considerable manpower Invites members of Iroquois Six Nations to his home Trader; appreciates the custom of Indian gift giving 1,100 Indians show up to hear British offer; previous policy of neutrality Interpreter tries to convince Indians to side with English; offers English protection against French References long standing ties between English crown and Iroquois Most refuse to break their neutrality; only Hendrick and 200 Mohawk warriors agree to fight with Johnson Lead forces to Lake Sacrement renamed Lake George after the king of England
Bloody Morning Scout/Battle of Lake George /September 1755 Johnson tries to cross into Lake Champlain to attack fort between New York and Canada Johnson s force = 3,000 men recruited from colonies, Hendrick, and 200 Mohawk warriors Sends Hendrick ahead to scout while Johnson builds an encampment Canadian Mohawk allied with French encounter them; Indians appeal to each other not to fight a white man s war Hendrick, 30 warriors, 150 colonials die in battle within minutes Remaining troops run 4 miles back to encampment French charge entrance to Johnson s camp Johnson s men ready; fight Battle of Lake George; no winner Costly to both sides French retreat; Johnson took musket shot to backside Mohawk return home to mourn dead English never reach Lake Champlain; Johnson built Fort William Henry to secure position at the base of Lake George; will be dividing line for two empires for four years
Back to the Western PA Frontier 1750 s dangerous time to be in PA back country for both English and natives; war made them enemies Attacked homesteads and took captives; growing need because of natives lost in battle Regiment of colonials commanded by George Washington (age 23) have the task of protecting the frontier Washington wants to train them to perform like British regulars; wants to be rewarded with a royal commission New England officers did not approve of strict military discipline of English officers. Took enlistment contracts seriously and refused to serve under any officers but their own. If terms violated, colonial army would be dissolved altogether.
July 1756 Lt. Gen. John Campbell/Earl of Loudoun takes Braddock s place Colonial armies in New England only agree to act in conjunction with English army, not under their command Loudoun already senses rebellion that will become the Revolution
New French General Louis Josef, Marquis de Montcalm Disdains natives; feels they are barbarians NY Indians maintained neutrality, Canadian Indians willing to go to war with French. Montcalm believes they make war with astounding cruelty; sparing neither women nor children.
Nova Scotia 1755 British military victory Formerly a French colony (Acadia) French are forced to leave the region; leave farms and fishing boats; systematic expulsion of all French speaking settlers until villages are emptied Families herded to the coast For next three years, 10,000 people evacuated Many go to Louisiana where they become known as Cajuns
Try to drive French out Head up Hudson from NY Montcalm travels St. Louis from Montreal British Disaster at Fort Niagara French stop British advance at Fort Oswego French plus 250 Indians capture the Fort after three days Indians plunder and take captives Montcalm sees Indian behavior and is horrified Pays ransom for British soldiers and promises to restrain Indians next time Next year, Montcalm + 2,000 warriors attack Lake George + 6,000 French regulars and militia (Fort William Henry) August 2nd, lookouts spot bonfires up the shoreline See oncoming armada Advance party already has camped in the woods near fort; British surrounded Lt. Colonel George Monroe implores that more troops be sent to him Montcalm offers a chance to surrender (military protocol); British decline, think they are getting reinforcements Offers terms of surrender again; Montcalm produces letter suggesting he get the best surrender terms possible Monroe surrenders with honor after Fort s walls breached British granted safe passage from the fort by terms of surrender; no plunder or prisoners Montcalm sits down for banquet with losers and doesn t invite Natives Natives attack on retreat and take everything from soldiers, kill many troops in the back (New England)
Part III Turning the Tide Lake George, NY - July 1758 British appoint new general Major General James Abercrombie 15,000+ men and 18 siege cannon sent to America Follow water north from NYC to Montreal (heart of French Canada) Must take French Fort Carillon (English Fort Ticonderoga) which guards passage from Lake George to Lake Champlain
1,000 boats cover Lake George from one side to the other; battle looming By 1758 the war is a global conflict France, Britain, and allies are battling in Germany over who will control Northern Europe In West Africa, fighting to control slave trade In India, battle for a piece of Asia Becomes known to history as the Seven Years War ; a struggle for rule of the greatest empire since Ancient Rome George II (Protestant) or Louis XV (Catholic)
Western Frontier Washington commander of Virginia regiment for 2 years with task of defending frontier against Indian raids Treated as inferiors by British regulars His only success was at Jumonville
Philadelphia Winter 1757 Washington visits English General Loudoun to request commission in regular army; never again sought British commission January 1758 Washington took sick leave and went home to run the estate he inherited, Mount Vernon
Boston February, 1758 Colonial legislators are asking for same rights historically accorded to British subjects They want to be asked to give their consent to being taxed Loudoun angry the colonials refuse his orders Money and principles driving a wedge between colonies and British crown Colonies believed they were being treated as inferiors
William Pitt Takes Over in England! Abercrombie s Attack on Fort Ticonderoga July, 1758 Joined King s government as Prime Minister; grants colonists most of what they want Summons Earl of Loudoun back to England Promises reimbursement for military expenses Pitt knows Britain needs full participation of British subjects Pitt s policies cause thousands to join Abercrombie s army When ready to attack Fort Ticonderoga, has a force of nearly 16,000 men. Provincials were fighting beside British regulars. Abercrombie lands at Lake George, a few miles from Fort Ticonderoga Montcalm knows he can t beat British forces; orders men out of the fort and brings them a mile forward toward the British. Builds a defensive wall on high ground. Builds a barrier of sharpened tree tops. Waiting for regulars and Indians. First major action where no Indians fight on French side. Abercrombie orders cannon bombardment; many of his siege guns have sunk in the lake French strategy slows British until they retreat French lose several hundred, British/provincials lose 2,000 French find shoes of the British in the mud; they were running away so quickly
Colonel John Bradstreet Suggested bold strike at heart of French Canadian colony Takes small army from Lake George to eastern end of Lake Ontario (through Iroquois land) Almost all colonial soldiers from NY, MA, NJ, RI Want to attack Fort Frontenac at headwaters of St. Lawrence River Orders immediate bombardment, leaving the French no opportunity to defend Frontenac surrenders within hours Frontenac was a supply fort for cannon, muskets, and food for Canada s western outposts Major blow to the French
Louisbourg Fall, 1758 Canada s critical Atlantic port, Louisbourg, fell to British Brigadier General James Wolfe led troops ashore after 6 week siege British sailors sneak into harbor and destroy last French battleships in Canada French surrender Turning point in the war If France can t hold British advances, loss of Canada looks imminent Leaves way to Quebec wide open Niagara still fortified but don t have supplies due to loss of Frontenac Corrupt officials stealing from French Canadian supply system (Francois Bigot) notorious gambling habit. In charge of equipping the army and selling goods/keeping profits for himself. Cripples French war effort Louis XV more invested in European campaigns than Canada By 1758 French treasury was drained; Louis XV was desperate for a European victory
Back to the Forks 1758 Fort Duquesne, at the forks, firmly in French hands Indian alliance with France is only to maintain lands they see as their birth right; French less likely to take it from them. British still wary after Braddock s 1755 failure. John Forbes built a fort every 50 miles from Philadelphia to the Ohio Makes diplomatic overtures to native people in the region. Has to reverse Shawnee and Delaware bitterness toward English. Tedeuscum??? Baptized Christian hoping to obtain homeland for him and his people. Left Christianity behind a year into the war. Attack on lands occupied by English, stolen through fraudulent treaties. But followers were starving, so he needed to make peace with the English, just in time to help General Forbes. Forbes assures the Indian leaders they only want to drive out the French, not take their land.
September 1758 Washington Re-joins Final push to conquer the forks of the Ohio Washington has different ideas than Forbes about the best route (paves way for traders and settlers to Ohio country) Washington wants road to follow southern route of Braddock to bring route near Virginia Forbes road is eventually built, later to become the Pennsylvania Turnpike Forbes diplomacy pays off; treaty signed with many native groups. Pennsylvanians promise no new settlements west of the Alleghenies. Tedeuscum was promised thousands of acres of land for his people to build a farming community for his help in bringing both sides together Fort Ligonier (50 miles from Duquesne) is jumping off point for attack. Forbes sends out two parties to chase down raiders who harass the British. One led by George Washington and the other by Col. George Mercer Groups come across each other in heavy fog; shots fired. Washington throws himself between the two lines . Two officers, 38 military men dead
November 23, 1758 Forbes army is ready to make its assault on Fort Duquesne Outnumbered French don t want to fight a battle they know they will lose French destroy the fort and retreat to Canada Forbes renamed Fort Duquesne Pittsburgh after the prime minister who changed the course of the war.
Quebec, Summer 1759 Major General James Wolfe needs to prove himself in battle Army camped on the opposite shore of the St. Lawrence from Quebec Tried for three months to capture Quebec; with winter approaching, had to make a move British control St. Lawrence, cutting France off from the interior Already tried an eastern attack; 500 men killed at Battle of Montmerency Burns settlements beyond Quebec (1,400 houses) Montcalm gets no reinforcements, only encouragement from Britain Wolfe has fever and thinks he will die, which spurs him to action Stars looking at Plains of Abraham, west of Quebec Orders 4,500 men to scale the steep cliffs surrounding Quebec Element of surprise; British assemble on the plains outside the city walls.
Quebec, Summer 1759 Montcalm s line breaks down French fire before they are in range British wait patiently Entire battle was no more than ten minutes French flee back to the city; surrender four days later Wolfe mortally wounded in battle; death glorified Montcalm shot in abdomen and died
Another Year Summer 1760 1759 Iroquois abandoned 50 years of neutrality and allied themselves with the British British prepare to take last French holdout at Montreal Pass through territory of Canadian Mohawk allied with French, with Iroquois peacemakers. Jeffrey Amherst despises Iroquois on expedition. Brings three armies to descend on Montreal at the same time. Bloodless surrender on September 8, 1760. War comes to an end.
The War Ends Amherst will not let French keep regimental flags; the French burn them After a century of trade and relations with the natives, French influence ends in North America Britain s holdings transferred into an empire of nearly a half a billion acres Amherst gets a knighthood as well as the job of leading the colonies with tight budgets and dwindling manpower. Britain shifted manpower away to fight for control of French Islands in the West Indies (part of Seven Years War). Britain gets French territory in Africa and French trading posts in India. Spain sides with France and the war spreads to Spanish possessions in the Philippines.
Amherst and the Natives Though Iroquois were crucial in Amherst s victory, he considers them a savage enemy. Restricts Indian access to ammunition Curtails gift giving to natives to save empire money Wants to transform ally relationship into master/subject relationships Indians do not see themselves as subjects Fort Pitt being built at the forks, despite treaty indicating they would not build west of the Alleghenies War brewing with Indians. William Johnson, Superintendent of Indian Affairs, realizes the natives are being treated unfairly.
1763 Pontiacs Rebellion Ottowa War Chief Stirs Indians to action War belts spread Pontiac s message Natives band together against the British Massacre of British at Michelmackinaw Repeated at multiple British outposts British lose all but three major forts in back country
Washington-Land Speculator Same day 1763 George Washington joins land venture to colonize the Ohio Country Washington and partners are hoping it will bring them wealth Problem: Treaty of Easton promised no English settle west of the Alleghenies Land claim in modern Indiana Amherst short of money and men, not getting help from colonial legislatures Begins deliberately using smallpox against Native Americans (germ warfare) Smallpox blankets given to Indians, although it makes little difference Indians already besieged Amherst relieved of command; goes home aboard ship named The Weasel
Treaty of Paris 1763 February 1763 ends the Seven Years War King George III - ruled more territory across the globe than ever held by Roman Empire King issues Proclamation of 1763 All lands west of Appalachians reserved for the Indians 1760 s Ohio country receives settlers from Britain and other parts of Europe
Britain in Debt Expensive war; Britain shouldered responsibility but now treasury empty Expected American colonists to pay their share Stamp Act caused violent colonial reaction Tax collectors burned; tax ignored Colonists feel betrayed; were not asked to consent to Stamp Act Washington frustrated; obstacle in his path toward becoming a land surveyor; looks upon Proclamation as temporary to appease the Indians
