Token Economies and Behaviour Modification in Custody: Evaluating Efficacy

 
Behaviour Modification in
Custody
 
Aim: to describe and evaluate the efficacy of token economies within prison
Behaviour modification: 
an
application of the behaviourist
approach to treatment based on
the principle of operant
conditioning. Undesirable
behaviours are replaced with
desirable behaviours through the
use of positive and negative
reinforcement, and punishment.
 
Token Economy is based on the idea that POSITIVE
REINFORCEMENT LEADS TO CHANGE
 
Tokens are a 
Tokens are a 
SECONDARY
SECONDARY
 reinforcers.
 reinforcers.
They are exchanged/cashed in for 
They are exchanged/cashed in for 
PRIMARY
PRIMARY
reinforcers –things that are actually wanted.
reinforcers –things that are actually wanted.
Tokens are given for DESIRABLE behaviours and
Tokens are given for DESIRABLE behaviours and
maybe
maybe
 taken away for UNWANTED behaviours.
 taken away for UNWANTED behaviours.
 
Little devils
 
To little angels
 
Undesirable
 
Think of as many
prison rewards that
tokens could be
exchanged for.
Increments
 
When designing a behaviour modification programme the desirable behaviour is
identified  - like being polite to other people, and it is then broken down into
smaller steps called increments.
 
Smiling, saying hello, keeping voice calm and pleasant, saying please and thank
you, not interrupting etc.
 
Each day the prisoner would be rated for politeness and then a decision is made
about whether the goal has been met – maybe 2 guards have to agree.
 
All staff have to absolutely in agreement about what is being reinforced. To
work the TEP must be consistent and fair.
 
The Conjugal Visit
A 
conjugal visit
 is a scheduled visit in which an inmate of
a prison is permitted to spend several hours or days in
private with a visitor, usually their legal spouse. The
parties may engage in sexual activity.
Legal in 6 states in America
Illegal in the UK
May reduce sexual and physical
violence in prisons (D’Alessio 2012)
 
Could a conjugal visit form part of a behaviour
modification programme within prison?
 
 
Employment opportunities: good tokens?
 
The biggest “slave labour” workforce in the
world?
 
Inmates can earn as little as £10 for a 40-hour working week – £237.60 cheaper per
Inmates can earn as little as £10 for a 40-hour working week – £237.60 cheaper per
week than a worker on minimum wage. The company Speedy Hire closed 37 depots,
week than a worker on minimum wage. The company Speedy Hire closed 37 depots,
slashing 300 jobs, while at the same time employing 200 prisoners to service their
slashing 300 jobs, while at the same time employing 200 prisoners to service their
plant hire tools. And in August 2012 
plant hire tools. And in August 2012 
the Guardian
the Guardian
 
 
reported
reported
 that a call centre in
 that a call centre in
South Wales was using inmates from an open prison 21 miles away and paying them
South Wales was using inmates from an open prison 21 miles away and paying them
£3 a day.
£3 a day.
Is this a positive or
negative use of the token
economy system?
One strength of behaviour modification is
that it is easy to implement
 
It does not require specialists and is cheap to administer and there is evidence to suggest
It does not require specialists and is cheap to administer and there is evidence to suggest
it is effective . 
it is effective . 
Hobbs and Holt (1976) 
Hobbs and Holt (1976) 
describe a token economy system which was
describe a token economy system which was
introduced across 3 young offenders behavioural units, a 4
introduced across 3 young offenders behavioural units, a 4
th
th
 institution for young offenders
 institution for young offenders
acted as a control condition. The token economy groups showed a significant difference in the
acted as a control condition. The token economy groups showed a significant difference in the
amount of positive behaviour.
amount of positive behaviour.
 
However, 
However, 
Bassett and Blanchard (1977) 
Bassett and Blanchard (1977) 
s
s
uggest the benefits of the token economy system
uggest the benefits of the token economy system
are lost when staff apply the rules inconsistently due to lack of training or high staff turnover.
are lost when staff apply the rules inconsistently due to lack of training or high staff turnover.
 
Furthermore
Furthermore
, offenders are not given the option over whether they participate in the token
, offenders are not given the option over whether they participate in the token
economy. Withdrawal of privileges such as exercise or phone calls to loved ones may also be
economy. Withdrawal of privileges such as exercise or phone calls to loved ones may also be
ethically questionable. 
ethically questionable. 
Also, in order to be effective, important reinforcements need to be
Also, in order to be effective, important reinforcements need to be
controlled, which may violate basic human rights e.g. restrictions on food, privacy and
controlled, which may violate basic human rights e.g. restrictions on food, privacy and
freedom of movement. 
freedom of movement. 
This questions the morality of using a token economy system.
This questions the morality of using a token economy system.
 
 
Another limitation is that there may be
limited rehabilitation value
 
For example
For example
, 
, 
Cohen and Filipczak (1971)
Cohen and Filipczak (1971)
 
 
found that t
found that t
oken
oken
economy groups showed more desirable behaviour than control
economy groups showed more desirable behaviour than control
groups. 
groups. 
However
However
, after 3 years, rates of recidivism went back to
, after 3 years, rates of recidivism went back to
reflecting national statistics.
reflecting national statistics.
 
This finding suggests that . . . The benefits of behaviour
This finding suggests that . . . The benefits of behaviour
modification may not generalise beyond a prison setting . . 
modification may not generalise beyond a prison setting . . 
.
.
 
Blackburn (1993)
 
Token economies, according to Blackburn, “have little
rehabilitative value” – any positive changes may quickly be lost
when offenders are released. Progress is unlikely to be assured
upon release since law-abiding behaviour is not rewarded or
reinforced on the outside. In fact, rewards the offender
receives from breaking the law (such as group status) may be
more powerful
BM is not a ‘cure’ and people may become dependant on the
regime.
 
 
Although BM has its limitations it can be
improved
 
Field (2004) 
Field (2004) 
found that when the BM programme is tailored to the
found that when the BM programme is tailored to the
individual it is even more effective, he suggested that the rewards
individual it is even more effective, he suggested that the rewards
and frequency of the rewards must be tailored to the individual
and frequency of the rewards must be tailored to the individual
offender. Field found that in a youth offender setting, prisoners
offender. Field found that in a youth offender setting, prisoners
responded more positively when rewards were more immediate and
responded more positively when rewards were more immediate and
more frequent.
more frequent.
 
Why might individually tailored programmes be more difficult to
Why might individually tailored programmes be more difficult to
implement in a typical prison.
implement in a typical prison.
 
Strength or Limitation?
 
Think about the research evidence.
Overall do you think Behaviour
Modification programmes are a good
idea or not?
Your own opinion will affect the
‘tone’ of your essay – you will be
making a judgement and that will
become evident in the way you use
the evidence.
This is how you create an argument
Evaluating TEP
 
Weaknesses
Weaknesses
Limited rehabilitative value
Limited rehabilitative value
 
Raises ethical issues
Raises ethical issues
 
Learning is only superficial
Learning is only superficial
 
 
Now complete your
Now complete your
work sheet from PHG
work sheet from PHG
Strengths
Strengths
Relatively easy to implement
Relatively easy to implement
Individually tailored programmes can be
Individually tailored programmes can be
effective
effective
 
Exam Practice!
A young offender’s institute introduced a token economy system for 6 weeks. Each
A young offender’s institute introduced a token economy system for 6 weeks. Each
young offender was given a behaviour rating out of 50 based on a questionnaire
young offender was given a behaviour rating out of 50 based on a questionnaire
completed by prison staff. The questionnaire included several measures of the
completed by prison staff. The questionnaire included several measures of the
offender’s behaviour in prison including level of compliance and relationship with
offender’s behaviour in prison including level of compliance and relationship with
other offenders. At the end of the programme, the offenders were rated using the
other offenders. At the end of the programme, the offenders were rated using the
same questionnaire. Each offender was matched with another offender of the same
same questionnaire. Each offender was matched with another offender of the same
age and criminal history in a neighbouring institution; the same measures were
age and criminal history in a neighbouring institution; the same measures were
taken but a token economy programme was not used in this institution.
taken but a token economy programme was not used in this institution.
1.
Write a 
Write a 
suitable
suitable
 hypothesis for this investigation
 hypothesis for this investigation
2.
Which experimental 
Which experimental 
design 
design 
was used?
was used?
3.
Explain 
Explain 
why
why
 this experimental design was flawed.
 this experimental design was flawed.
4.
Which statistical test would be most appropriate? Justify your choice with
Which statistical test would be most appropriate? Justify your choice with
reference to levels of measurement (e.g. ordinal, nominal, interval)
reference to levels of measurement (e.g. ordinal, nominal, interval)
 
Prison Labour Documentary
 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqXAkE-54NU
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqXAkE-54NU
 
 
Worth a watch – really interesting
Worth a watch – really interesting
 
You are now a prison guard:
What are the
rewards?
What are the
punishments?
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This article explores the application of token economies in prisons as a behaviour modification technique based on operant conditioning. Token economies involve exchanging tokens for desired behaviours, aiming to replace undesirable actions with positive reinforcement. The use of increments, consistent reinforcement, and the potential inclusion of conjugal visits as part of the programme are discussed. The effectiveness of token economies in promoting positive behaviour change within the prison system is evaluated.


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  1. Behaviour Modification in Custody Aim: to describe and evaluate the efficacy of token economies within prison Behaviour modification: an application of the behaviourist approach to treatment based on the principle of operant conditioning. Undesirable behaviours are replaced with desirable behaviours through the use of positive and negative reinforcement, and punishment.

  2. http://images.google.co.uk/images?q=tbn:ZgPIBV1Uxtg2iM:http://www.nationalticket.com/images/Specialty-Products/Tokens.jpghttp://images.google.co.uk/images?q=tbn:ZgPIBV1Uxtg2iM:http://www.nationalticket.com/images/Specialty-Products/Tokens.jpg

  3. Token Economy is based on the idea that POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT LEADS TO CHANGE Tokens are a SECONDARY reinforcers. They are exchanged/cashed in for PRIMARY reinforcers things that are actually wanted. Tokens are given for DESIRABLE behaviours and maybe taken away for UNWANTED behaviours.

  4. Little devils To little angels

  5. Undesirable Think of as many prison rewards that tokens could be exchanged for.

  6. Increments When designing a behaviour modification programme the desirable behaviour is identified - like being polite to other people, and it is then broken down into smaller steps called increments. Smiling, saying hello, keeping voice calm and pleasant, saying please and thank you, not interrupting etc. Each day the prisoner would be rated for politeness and then a decision is made about whether the goal has been met maybe 2 guards have to agree. All staff have to absolutely in agreement about what is being reinforced. To work the TEP must be consistent and fair.

  7. The Conjugal Visit A conjugal visit is a scheduled visit in which an inmate of a prison is permitted to spend several hours or days in private with a visitor, usually their legal spouse. The parties may engage in sexual activity. Legal in 6 states in America Illegal in the UK May reduce sexual and physical violence in prisons (D Alessio 2012)

  8. Could a conjugal visit form part of a behaviour modification programme within prison?

  9. Employment opportunities: good tokens?

  10. The biggest slave labour workforce in the world? Inmates can earn as little as 10 for a 40-hour working week 237.60 cheaper per week than a worker on minimum wage. The company Speedy Hire closed 37 depots, slashing 300 jobs, while at the same time employing 200 prisoners to service their plant hire tools. And in August 2012 the Guardian reported that a call centre in South Wales was using inmates from an open prison 21 miles away and paying them 3 a day. Is this a positive or negative use of the token economy system?

  11. One strength of behaviour modification is that it is easy to implement It does not require specialists and is cheap to administer and there is evidence to suggest it is effective . Hobbs and Holt (1976) describe a token economy system which was introduced across 3 young offenders behavioural units, a 4th institution for young offenders acted as a control condition. The token economy groups showed a significant difference in the amount of positive behaviour. However, Bassett and Blanchard (1977) suggest the benefits of the token economy system are lost when staff apply the rules inconsistently due to lack of training or high staff turnover. Furthermore, offenders are not given the option over whether they participate in the token economy. Withdrawal of privileges such as exercise or phone calls to loved ones may also be ethically questionable. Also, in order to be effective, important reinforcements need to be controlled, which may violate basic human rights e.g. restrictions on food, privacy and freedom of movement. This questions the morality of using a token economy system.

  12. Another limitation is that there may be limited rehabilitation value For example, Cohen and Filipczak (1971) found that token economy groups showed more desirable behaviour than control groups. However, after 3 years, rates of recidivism went back to reflecting national statistics. This finding suggests that . . . The benefits of behaviour modification may not generalise beyond a prison setting . . .

  13. Blackburn (1993) Token economies, according to Blackburn, have little rehabilitative value any positive changes may quickly be lost when offenders are released. Progress is unlikely to be assured upon release since law-abiding behaviour is not rewarded or reinforced on the outside. In fact, rewards the offender receives from breaking the law (such as group status) may be more powerful BM is not a cure and people may become dependant on the regime.

  14. Although BM has its limitations it can be improved Field (2004) found that when the BM programme is tailored to the individual it is even more effective, he suggested that the rewards and frequency of the rewards must be tailored to the individual offender. Field found that in a youth offender setting, prisoners responded more positively when rewards were more immediate and more frequent. Why might individually tailored programmes be more difficult to implement in a typical prison.

  15. Strength or Limitation? Think about the research evidence. Overall do you think Behaviour Modification programmes are a good idea or not? Your own opinion will affect the tone of your essay you will be making a judgement and that will become evident in the way you use the evidence. This is how you create an argument

  16. Evaluating TEP Weaknesses Limited rehabilitative value Strengths Relatively easy to implement Raises ethical issues Individually tailored programmes can be effective Learning is only superficial Now complete your work sheet from PHG

  17. Exam Practice! A young offender s institute introduced a token economy system for 6 weeks. Each young offender was given a behaviour rating out of 50 based on a questionnaire completed by prison staff. The questionnaire included several measures of the offender s behaviour in prison including level of compliance and relationship with other offenders. At the end of the programme, the offenders were rated using the same questionnaire. Each offender was matched with another offender of the same age and criminal history in a neighbouring institution; the same measures were taken but a token economy programme was not used in this institution. 1. Write a suitable hypothesis for this investigation 2. Which experimental design was used? 3. Explain why this experimental design was flawed. 4. Which statistical test would be most appropriate? Justify your choice with reference to levels of measurement (e.g. ordinal, nominal, interval)

  18. Prison Labour Documentary https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rqXAkE-54NU Worth a watch really interesting

  19. You are now a prison guard: Desirable behaviours? Undesirable behaviours? What are the rewards? What are the punishments?

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