Evolution of Language Teaching Methods: From Grammar Translation to Direct Method

 
Approaches and Methods in
Language Teaching
 
 
 
              Jack C. Richards
  
                
&
 
       
 
      Theodore S. Rodgers
 
 
 
  V.Peruvalluthi, Ph.D.
   Professor
   Department of English
   Thiruvalluvar University
    Vellore
    valluthi@gmail.com
 
Traditional Method
The Grammar Translation Method
 
Johann Sedenstuker
Karl Plotz
H.S.Ollendorf
Johann Meidinger
 
It was known as the Prussian Method in
The USA
 
Principle Characteristics of
Grammar Translation Method
 
 
Goal of foreign language study is to
read its literature
 
Reading & writing major focus;
speaking & listening generally
ignored
 
 
Vocabulary based on reading text
 
Sentence is the basic unit of
teaching & learning practice
 
 
Accuracy emphasized
 
Grammar taught deductively
(usually the terminology used for
studying Latin Grammar)
 
Student’s native language medium
of instruction
 
The Reform Movement
(Based on Applied Linguistics)
 
Beginning of a scientific approach
In 1880s: Linguists Henry Sweet
(England); Wilhelm Vietor (Germany); &
Paul Passy (France)
 
In 1886 the International Phonetic
Association formed & its International
Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) designed
 
It advocated:
 
The study of spoken language
Phonetic training
Use of conversation texts
Inductive approach for teaching
grammar
Focus only on target language (mother
tongue avoided)
 
Direct Method
 
Parallel to the Reform Movement
 
A “natural method” based on naturalistic
principles in language learning
 
In 1860 L. Sauver’s Boston language school:
Natural Method
 
Maxmilian Berlitz’s “Berlitz Method”:
Natural Method
 
Berlitz Method (Theory)
 
Classroom instruction in target language
Everyday vocabulary & sentences taught
Graded oral communication for small
classes
Inductive grammar teaching
New teaching points introduced orally
Concrete vocabulary: demonstration
Abstract vocabulary: association of ideas
Speech & Comprehension taught
Correct pronunciation & grammar
emphasized
 
Berlitz School Guidelines
(Strategy)
 
Never translate: demonstrate
Never explain: act
Never make a speech: ask questions
Never imitate mistakes: correct
Never speak with single words: use
sentences
Never speak too much: make students
speak much
 
 
Never use the book: use your lesson plan
Never jump around: follow your plan
Never go too fast: keep the pace of the
student
Never speak too slowly: speak normally
Never speak too quickly: speak normally
Never speak too loudly: speak naturally
Never be impatient: take it easy
Limitation of the method: Teacher
should be very competent
 
Major Trends in 20
th
 Century
Language Teaching
 
 
 
 
Language teaching became professional
in the 20
th
 century.
 
Drew form Linguistics & Psychology
 
 
To develop principles & procedures
for the design of teaching methods &
materials
 
The method concept in teaching:
teaching practices based on particular
theory of language & language learning
was adopted
 
Language Teaching Approaches &
Methods : Assumptions
 
 
 
An approach or method refers to a
theoretically consistent set of teaching
procedures that define best practice in
language teaching
 
Particular approaches and methods, if
followed precisely, will lead to more
effective levels of language learning
than alternative ways of teaching
 
The quality of language teaching will
improve if teachers use the best
available approaches and methods
 
Why Study ELT
Approaches & Methods?
 
 
 
The study of approaches and methods
provides teachers with a view of how
the field of language  teaching has
evolved
 
 
Approaches & methods can be studied
not as prescriptions for how to teach
but as a source of well-used practices,
which teachers can adapt or implement
based on their own needs
 
 
Experience in using different teaching
approaches and methods can provide
teachers with basic teaching skills that
they can later add to or supplement as
they develop teaching experience
 
Approach, Method & Technique
(Edward Anthony, 1963)
 
 
An approach is a set of correlative
assumptions dealing with the nature of
language teaching & learning. It is
axiomatic.
 
 
Method is an overall plan for the
orderly presentation of language
material based upon the selected
approach. It is procedural.
 
A technique is implementational—that
which actually takes place in a
classroom.  Techniques must be
consistent with a method, and therefore
in harmony with an approach as well.
 
Approach
 is the level at which
assumptions and beliefs about language
and language learning are specified
Method
 is the level at which theory is
put into practice and at which choices
are made about the particular skills to
be taught, the content to be taught and
the order in which the content will be
presented
Technique
 is the level at which
classroom procedures are described
 
Format of 
Approach & Methods
(A)
 
Approach (assumptions)
 
 
 
Theory of language
Theory of language learning
 
(B) Design
 
Objectives
Content choice and organization: The
syllabus
Types of learning & teaching activities
Learner roles
Teacher roles
The role of instructional materials
 
Role of instructional material
 
The primary goal of material:
 
To present content
To practice content
To facilitate communication between
learners
To enable learners to practice content
without the teacher’s help
 
The form of materials:
 
Textbook
Audiovisuals
Computer software
 
The relation of materials to other
sources of input
 
Whether they serve as the major
source of input or only as a minor
component of it
 
The abilities of teachers
 
Their competence in the language or
degree of training & experience
 
(C) Procedure
 
Three dimensions of a method:
 
(a) the use of teaching activities (drills,
dialogues, information-gap activities,
etc.) to present new language and to
clarify and demonstrate formal,
communicative, or other aspects of
target language
 
(b) the ways in which particular teaching
activities are used for practicing
language
 
(c) the procedures & techniques used in
giving feedback to learners concerning
the form or content of their utterances
or sentences
 
Communicative Language Teaching
(CLT)
 
Theory of  language
Language as communication
Linguistic theory must incorporate
communication & culture (Hymes in
contrast to Chomsky’s theory on
competence)
Competences: Grammatical;
Sociolinguistic; Discourse; & Strategic
                            (Henry Widdowson)
 
Theory of Learning
 
1. 
Communication principle
: Activities
that involve real communication promote
learning
 
2. 
Task principle
: Activities in which
language is used for carrying out
meaningful tasks promote learning
 
3. 
Meaningfulness principle
:
Language that is meaningful to the
learner supports the learning
process
 
Note
: Language activities are
consequently selected according to how
well they engage the learner in
meaningful & authentic language use
(rather than merely mechanical practice
of language pattern)
 
The 
cognitive
 
aspect
 [of learning]
involves the internalisation of plans for
creating appropriate behaviour. (From
grammatical rules; vocabulary; & social
conventions governing speech)
 
The 
behavioural
 
aspect
 [of learning]
involves the automation of these plans
to be converted into fluent performance
in real time. This occurs mainly through
practice
 in converting plans into
performance
 
Design
 
 
Objectives
To reflect specific aspects of
communicative competence according to
the learner’s proficiency level &
communicative needs
 
 
The Syllabus
 
 
A purely procedural syllabus which lists,
in more or less detail, the types of
tasks to be attempted in the classroom
and suggests an order of complexity for
tasks of the same kind
 
Types of learning & teaching
activities
 
Functional communication activities
(comparing, sequencing, discovering,
solving problems from shared clues)
 
Social interaction activities
(conversation/discussion sessions;
dialogues/role plays; simulations; skits;
improvisations & debates)
 
Learner roles
 
 
Should acknowledge cooperative
approach; successful communication is
an accomplishment jointly achieved &
acknowledged
 
 
Teacher roles
 
Facilitator
Organizer
Guide
Researcher
Needs analyst
Counselor
Group process manager
 
The role of instructional materials
 
Text-based materials: theme, task
oriented thematic development,
practice situation, stimulus
presentation, comprehension &
paraphrase
Task-based materials: games, role plays,
simulations
Realia : signs, magazines,
advertisements, newspapers, maps,
pictures, symbols, graphs & charts
 
Procedure
Presentation of brief dialogue
Oral practice of the dialogue
Questions & answers on the dialogue
Question & answer on related personal
experiences
Study of one communicative structure
Learner discovery of rules
Oral production
Written homework assignment
Evaluation: oral
 
The Oral Approach
&
Situational Language
Teaching
 
 
Developed by British applied linguists
from 1930s to 1960s.
Harold Palmer, A.S. Hornby & West
 
They attempted to develop a more
scientific method for an oral approach to
teaching English
Vocabulary control
: a) vocabulary was an
important aspect in learning a foreign
language b) increased emphasis on reading
skills as the goal of foreign language study
 
Grammar control
: Palmer viewed
grammar as the underlying sentence
patterns of the spoken language
 
“substitution tables” were evolved
by the linguists which could be used
to help internalize the rules of
English sentence structure
 
They developed an approach to
methodology that involved systematic
principles of
 
Selection
: The procedures by which lexical
& grammatical content was chosen
Gradation
: Principles by which the
organization & sequencing of content were
determined
Presentation
: Techniques used for
presentation & practice of items in a course
 
 
In 1960s Australian George Pittman and
his colleagues, especially, Gloria Tate
were responsible for developing an
influential set of teaching materials
based on the Situational Approach
 
Approach
 
Theory of Language
: A type of British
“structuralism”—different from American
structuralism—the notion of “situation”;
Pittman declared: “Our principal classroom
activity in the teaching of English structure
will be the oral practice of structures. This
oral practice of controlled sentence
patterns should be given in situations
designed to give the greatest amount of
practice in English speech to the pupil.”
 
Theory of Learning
: (Process oriented)
It adopts an inductive approach to the
teaching of grammar. The meanings of
words or structures is not to be given
through explanation in either the native
language or the target language but is
to be induced from the way the form is
used in a situation. The learner is then
expected to apply the language learned
in the classroom to situations outside
the classroom.
 
Design
 
Objectives
: To teach a practical
command of the four basic skills of
language taught through structure.
Accuracy in both pronunciation and
grammar is regarded as crucial, and
errors are to be avoided at all costs.
 
 
The Syllabus
: Uses a structural syllabus
& word list. A structural syllabus is a
list of the basic structures & sentence
patterns of English, arranged according
to their presentation. Eg. :This is
…/That is … book/pencil/ruler/desk.
Note: “Situation” refers to the manner
of presenting & practicing sentence
patterns
 
Types of learning & teaching activities
:
The situation will be controlled carefully
to teach the new language material in
such  way that there can be no doubt in
the learner’s mind of the meaning of
what he hears.
The practice techniques employed
generally consist of guided repetition &
substitution activities, including chorus
repetition, dictation, drills, & controlled
oral-based reading & writing tasks
including pair practice & group work
 
 
Learner Roles
: In the initial stages of
learning, the learner is required simply
to listen & repeat what the teacher says
& to respond to questions & commands.
[Learner has no control over the
content.] Later, more active
participation like learners initiating
responses & asking each other
questions.
 
Teacher roles
: The teacher’s function is
threefold: a) in the presentation stage
the teacher serves as a model, setting
up situations in which the need for the
target structure is created & then
modeling the new structures to repeat
b) the teacher is required to be a
skillful manipulator, using questions,
commands, & other cues to elicit
correct sentences from the learners
   c) during the practice phase the
teacher corrects errors
 
 
The role of instructional materials
:
Situational Language Teaching is
dependent upon a textbook (containing
tightly organized lessons planned around
different grammatical structures) &
visual aids (like wall charts, flashcards,
pictures, stick figures, etc.).
Note
: The teacher is expected to be
the master of his textbook.
 
Procedure
 
Classroom procedures move from
controlled to freer practice of
structures & from oral use of sentence
patterns to their automatic use in
speech, reading & writing
The sequence of activities are:
1) Listening practice
2) Choral imitation
3) Individual imitation
 
4) Isolation of sounds, words, word groups
5) Building up to a new model
6) Elicitation
7) Substitution drilling
8) Question & Answer drilling
9) Correction
10) Supplemented by reading & writing
 
The Audio-lingual Method
 
In 1929 the Coleman Report recommended a
reading-based approach to foreign language
teaching for use in American schools &
colleges.  This emphasized teaching the
comprehension of texts.
Sentence patterns, grammar & vocabulary
were introduced without any standardization
at  the whim of the textbook writer.
 
 
After the Second World War, the government
commissioned American universities to
develop foreign language programs for
military personnel. Thus the Army Specialized
Training Program (ASTP) was established in
1943.
 
Leonard Bloomfield at Yale University had
developed the “informant method”. A native
speaker would be an informant, who served as
a source of phrases, vocabulary & sentences
for imitation in the presence of a linguist
trainer (training was given for linguists &
anthropologists).
 
 
The students & the linguist were able to take
part in guided conversation with the
informant thus learning to speak the foreign
language & understanding much of its basic
grammar. Students studied 10 hrs. a day for 6
days a week: 15 hrs. drill with native speakers;
20 to 30 hrs. of private study spread over two
or three 6-week sessions. Was very effective.
It was adopted by the army and came to be
also known as the “Army Method”.
 
The methodology of the Army Method
derived from the intensity of contact with the
target language rather than from any well-
developed methodological base. The linguists
who developed this method for the army were
not really interested in language teaching. The
glamour of this method slowly faded away &
new innovative methods were adopted.
 
 
Charles Fries of the English Language Institute
of Michigan University applied the principles
of structural linguistics to language teaching.
For Fries, grammar or “structure” was the
starting point. The structure of the language
was identified with its basic sentence patterns
& grammatical structures. The language was
taught by systematic attention to
pronunciation & by intensive oral drilling.
Pattern practice was a basic classroom
technique.
 
The American linguists used the method of
contrastive analysis of their native language &
the target foreign language to enhance the
learning process. The approach developed by
them became variously known  the Oral
Approach, the Aural-Oral Approach & the
Structural Approach.
 
In the mid-1950s, the linguistic principles of
the Aural-Oral Approach were incorporated
with the state-of-the-art psychological
learning theory which came to be known as
Audiolingualism.
Audiolingual Method combined structural
linguistic theory, contrastive analysis, aural-
oral procedures & behaviorist psychology.
(Term Audiolingualism coined by Professor
Nelson Brooks in 1964.)
 
Approach
 
Theory of language
: Structural linguistics had
developed as a reaction to traditional
grammar which was linked to logic &
philosophy. In Structural Linguistics, Linguistic
levels were thought of as systems within
systems pyramidally structured: phonemic
systems (sounds) led to morphemic systems
(stems, prefixes, suffixes) leading to higher
level syntactic systems (phrases, clauses, &
sentence types).
 
Another important tenet of Structural
Linguistics was that the  primary medium of
language is oral: Speech is language.
 
Theory of learning
 
Behaviorism, like structural linguistics, is an
empirically based approach to the study of
human behavior. Three crucial elements in
learning: stimulus, response & reinforcement.
(Harvard behaviorist B. F. Skinner.)
 
Design
 
Includes short-range & long-range objectives
(Brooks)
Short-range: First, control of structures of
sound, form & order in the new language;
second, acquaintance with vocabulary items
that bring content into these structures; &
third, meaning, in terms of the significance
these verbal symbols have for those who
speak the language natively.
 
Long-range objectives: Must be language as
the native speaker uses it. There  must be
some knowledge of a second language as it is
possessed by a true bilingualist.
 
Syllabus
 
The starting point is a linguistic syllabus, which
contains the key items of phonology,
morphology, and syntax of the language
arranged according to their order of
presentation. These may have been derived
from a contrastive analysis of the native &
target languages in order to remove the major
difficulties encountered by the learner.
 
When reading & writing are introduced,
students are taught to read & write what they
have already learned to say orally. An attempt
is made to minimize the possibilities for
making mistakes in both speaking & writing by
using a tightly structured approach to the
presentation of new language items. At more
advanced levels, more complex  reading &
writing tasks are introduced.
 
The role of instructional materials
 
Course begins with listening, repeating &
responding.
The teacher’s book would contain structured
lessons mainly dialogues for practice.
Books are provided for drills & exercises
 
Conclusion
 
Chomsky’s theory of transformational
grammar proposed that the fundamental
properties of language derive from innate
aspects of the mind & how humans process
experience through language. Chomsky
argued that such a learning theory could not
serve as a model of how humans learn a
language since much of human language use
is not
 
imitated behavior but is created anew from
underlying knowledge of abstract rules.
Sentences are not learned by imitation &
repetition but “generated” from learner’s
underlying “competence”. This theoretical
shift has reduced the importance of this
approach though it is still relevant in language
learning.
 
Task-Based Language Teaching
(TBLT)
 
Assumptions
Activities that involve real
communication are essential for
language learning
Activities in which language is used for
carrying out meaningful tasks promote
learning
Language that is meaningful to the
learner supports the learning process
 
Approach
Theory of language
 
Language is primarily a means of making
meaning
Multiple models of language inform TBI
Lexical units are central in language use
and language learning
“Conversation” is the central focus of
language & the keystone of language
acquisition
 
Theory of learning
 
Tasks provide both the input and output
processing necessary for language
acquisition
Task activity & achievement are
motivational
Learning difficulty can be negotiated
and fine-tuned for particular
pedagogical purposes
 
Design
 
Objective
 
To give the learner the ability to
communicate accurately & effectively in
the most common English-language
activities they may be involved in
 
 
Syllabus
Syllabus
 
Course content includes:
Course content includes:
Language structures
Language structures
Functions
Functions
Topics & themes
Topics & themes
Macro-skills: lsrw
Macro-skills: lsrw
Competencies
Competencies
Text types
Text types
Vocabulary targets
Vocabulary targets
 
Two types of tasks
 
Real-world tasks, which are designed to
practice or rehearse those tasks that
are found to be important in a needs
analysis and turn out to be important &
useful in the real world
Pedagogical tasks, which have a
psycholinguistic basis in SLA theory &
research but do not necessarily reflect
real-world tasks
 
Task type
 
Diagram & formations
Naming parts of a diagram with numbers &
letters of the alphabets as instructed
 
Drawing
Drawing geometrical figures/formations from
sets of verbal instructions
 
Theme: planning a vacation
Decide where you can go
Booking a flight
Choosing a hotel
Booking a room
Theme: application to a university
Applying to the university
Corresponding with the department
Inquiring about financial support
Selecting the courses
Registering by phone
Calculating paying your fees
 
Types of learning & teaching activities
Tasks to generate types of interaction
 
Jigsaw tasks
Information-gap tasks
Problem-solving tasks
Decision-making tasks
Opinion exchange tasks
 
Characteristics of tasks
One-way or two-way
Convergent or divergent
Collaborative or competitive
Single or multiple outcomes
Concrete or abstract language
Simple or complex processing
Simple or complex language
Reality based or not reality based
 
Learner roles
Group participant
Monitor
Risk-taker & innovator
 
Teacher roles
Selector & sequence of tasks
Preparing learner for tasks
Consciousness-raising
 
The role of instructional materials
 
Pedagogic materials: teacher resource
books
Realia: Newspapers, Television,
Internet,
 
Procedure
 
Pretask activity
Task activity
Posttask activity
 
Willis model
 
Introduction to topic & task
The task cycle: Task, Planning, Report,
Posttask listening
Language focus: Analysis, Practice
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Explore the historical development of language teaching methods, starting from the traditional Grammar Translation Method to the innovative Direct Method alongside key figures and principles. The transition from text-focused, deductive grammar teaching to conversational, inductive approaches marks a significant shift towards immersive language learning experiences.


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  1. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching Jack C. Richards & Theodore S. Rodgers V.Peruvalluthi, Ph.D. Professor Department of English Thiruvalluvar University Vellore valluthi@gmail.com

  2. Traditional Method The Grammar Translation Method Johann Sedenstuker Karl Plotz H.S.Ollendorf Johann Meidinger It was known as the Prussian Method in The USA

  3. Principle Characteristics of Grammar Translation Method Goal of foreign language study is to read its literature Reading & writing major focus; speaking & listening generally ignored

  4. Vocabulary based on reading text Sentence is the basic unit of teaching & learning practice

  5. Accuracy emphasized Grammar taught deductively (usually the terminology used for studying Latin Grammar) Student s native language medium of instruction

  6. The Reform Movement (Based on Applied Linguistics) Beginning of a scientific approach In 1880s: Linguists Henry Sweet (England); Wilhelm Vietor (Germany); & Paul Passy (France) In 1886 the International Phonetic Association formed & its International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) designed

  7. It advocated: The study of spoken language Phonetic training Use of conversation texts Inductive approach for teaching grammar Focus only on target language (mother tongue avoided)

  8. Direct Method Parallel to the Reform Movement A natural method based on naturalistic principles in language learning In 1860 L. Sauver s Boston language school: Natural Method Maxmilian Berlitz s Berlitz Method : Natural Method

  9. Berlitz Method (Theory) Classroom instruction in target language Everyday vocabulary & sentences taught Graded oral communication for small classes Inductive grammar teaching New teaching points introduced orally Concrete vocabulary: demonstration Abstract vocabulary: association of ideas Speech & Comprehension taught Correct pronunciation & grammar emphasized

  10. Berlitz School Guidelines (Strategy) Never translate: demonstrate Never explain: act Never make a speech: ask questions Never imitate mistakes: correct Never speak with single words: use sentences Never speak too much: make students speak much

  11. Never use the book: use your lesson plan Never jump around: follow your plan Never go too fast: keep the pace of the student Never speak too slowly: speak normally Never speak too quickly: speak normally Never speak too loudly: speak naturally Never be impatient: take it easy Limitation of the method: Teacher should be very competent

  12. Major Trends in 20thCentury Language Teaching Language teaching became professional in the 20thcentury.

  13. Drew form Linguistics & Psychology To develop principles & procedures for the design of teaching methods & materials The method concept in teaching: teaching practices based on particular theory of language & language learning was adopted

  14. Language Teaching Approaches & Methods : Assumptions An approach or method refers to a theoretically consistent set of teaching procedures that define best practice in language teaching

  15. Particular approaches and methods, if followed precisely, will lead to more effective levels of language learning than alternative ways of teaching The quality of language teaching will improve if teachers use the best available approaches and methods

  16. Why Study ELT Approaches & Methods? The study of approaches and methods provides teachers with a view of how the field of language teaching has evolved

  17. Approaches & methods can be studied not as prescriptions for how to teach but as a source of well-used practices, which teachers can adapt or implement based on their own needs

  18. Experience in using different teaching approaches and methods can provide teachers with basic teaching skills that they can later add to or supplement as they develop teaching experience

  19. Approach, Method & Technique (Edward Anthony, 1963) An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language teaching & learning. It is axiomatic.

  20. Method is an overall plan for the orderly presentation of language material based upon the selected approach. It is procedural.

  21. A technique is implementationalthat which actually takes place in a classroom. Techniques must be consistent with a method, and therefore in harmony with an approach as well.

  22. Approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language learning are specified Method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught and the order in which the content will be presented Technique is the level at which classroom procedures are described

  23. Format of Approach & Methods (A) Approach (assumptions) Theory of language Theory of language learning

  24. (B) Design Objectives Content choice and organization: The syllabus Types of learning & teaching activities Learner roles Teacher roles The role of instructional materials

  25. Role of instructional material The primary goal of material: To present content To practice content To facilitate communication between learners To enable learners to practice content without the teacher s help

  26. The form of materials: Textbook Audiovisuals Computer software

  27. The relation of materials to other sources of input Whether they serve as the major source of input or only as a minor component of it

  28. The abilities of teachers Their competence in the language or degree of training & experience

  29. (C) Procedure Three dimensions of a method: (a) the use of teaching activities (drills, dialogues, information-gap activities, etc.) to present new language and to clarify and demonstrate formal, communicative, or other aspects of target language

  30. (b) the ways in which particular teaching activities are used for practicing language (c) the procedures & techniques used in giving feedback to learners concerning the form or content of their utterances or sentences

  31. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Theory of language Language as communication Linguistic theory must incorporate communication & culture (Hymes in contrast to Chomsky s theory on competence) Competences: Grammatical; Sociolinguistic; Discourse; & Strategic (Henry Widdowson)

  32. Theory of Learning 1. Communication principle: Activities that involve real communication promote learning 2. Task principle: Activities in which language is used for carrying out meaningful tasks promote learning

  33. 3. Meaningfulness principle: Language that is meaningful to the learner supports the learning process Note: Language activities are consequently selected according to how well they engage the learner in meaningful & authentic language use (rather than merely mechanical practice of language pattern)

  34. The cognitive aspect [of learning] involves the internalisation of plans for creating appropriate behaviour. (From grammatical rules; vocabulary; & social conventions governing speech) The behavioural aspect [of learning] involves the automation of these plans to be converted into fluent performance in real time. This occurs mainly through practice in converting plans into performance

  35. Design Objectives To reflect specific aspects of communicative competence according to the learner s proficiency level & communicative needs

  36. The Syllabus A purely procedural syllabus which lists, in more or less detail, the types of tasks to be attempted in the classroom and suggests an order of complexity for tasks of the same kind

  37. Types of learning & teaching activities Functional communication activities (comparing, sequencing, discovering, solving problems from shared clues) Social interaction activities (conversation/discussion sessions; dialogues/role plays; simulations; skits; improvisations & debates)

  38. Learner roles Should acknowledge cooperative approach; successful communication is an accomplishment jointly achieved & acknowledged

  39. Teacher roles Facilitator Organizer Guide Researcher Needs analyst Counselor Group process manager

  40. The role of instructional materials Text-based materials: theme, task oriented thematic development, practice situation, stimulus presentation, comprehension & paraphrase Task-based materials: games, role plays, simulations Realia : signs, magazines, advertisements, newspapers, maps, pictures, symbols, graphs & charts

  41. Procedure Presentation of brief dialogue Oral practice of the dialogue Questions & answers on the dialogue Question & answer on related personal experiences Study of one communicative structure Learner discovery of rules Oral production Written homework assignment Evaluation: oral

  42. The Oral Approach & Situational Language Teaching

  43. Developed by British applied linguists from 1930s to 1960s. Harold Palmer, A.S. Hornby & West They attempted to develop a more scientific method for an oral approach to teaching English Vocabulary control: a) vocabulary was an important aspect in learning a foreign language b) increased emphasis on reading skills as the goal of foreign language study

  44. Grammar control: Palmer viewed grammar as the underlying sentence patterns of the spoken language substitution tables were evolved by the linguists which could be used to help internalize the rules of English sentence structure

  45. They developed an approach to methodology that involved systematic principles of Selection: The procedures by which lexical & grammatical content was chosen Gradation: Principles by which the organization & sequencing of content were determined Presentation: Techniques used for presentation & practice of items in a course

  46. In 1960s Australian George Pittman and his colleagues, especially, Gloria Tate were responsible for developing an influential set of teaching materials based on the Situational Approach

  47. Approach Theory of Language: A type of British structuralism different from American structuralism the notion of situation ; Pittman declared: Our principal classroom activity in the teaching of English structure will be the oral practice of structures. This oral practice of controlled sentence patterns should be given in situations designed to give the greatest amount of practice in English speech to the pupil.

  48. Theory of Learning: (Process oriented) It adopts an inductive approach to the teaching of grammar. The meanings of words or structures is not to be given through explanation in either the native language or the target language but is to be induced from the way the form is used in a situation. The learner is then expected to apply the language learned in the classroom to situations outside the classroom.

  49. Design Objectives: To teach a practical command of the four basic skills of language taught through structure. Accuracy in both pronunciation and grammar is regarded as crucial, and errors are to be avoided at all costs.

  50. The Syllabus: Uses a structural syllabus & word list. A structural syllabus is a list of the basic structures & sentence patterns of English, arranged according to their presentation. Eg. :This is /That is book/pencil/ruler/desk. Note: Situation refers to the manner of presenting & practicing sentence patterns

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