Addressing Misconceptions in Teaching and Learning

 
Improving Student Learning by
Addressing Student and Teacher
Misconceptions about How People
Learn
 
Stephen L. Chew
Department of Psychology
Samford University
Birmingham, Alabama
 
Indiana State University
March 13, 2012
 
Goals of the Presentation
 
Discuss misconceptions about how people
learn can undermine both teaching
effectiveness and student performance
Demonstrate how cognitive research can
improve teaching and learning
Provide you with accurate and practical
information for improving teaching and
learning from cognitive research
Explain the complexities of effective teaching
and learning
 
Three Kinds of Knowledge for
Effective Teaching
 
Effective
Teaching
 
Knowledge of
Your Field
 
Knowledge
Of How People
Learn
 
Knowledge of How
People Learn
Your Field
 
Beliefs about How People Learn
 
Teaching requires a  mental model of how people
learn.
Most teachers cannot articulate their model of
learning, but they have one.
Determines which teaching methods are selected,
how they are implemented and assessed, and
how to adjust if there are problems.
If the model is accurate, the teacher will be
effective
If it is flawed or simplistic, the teacher will be less
effective
 
Beliefs about How People Learn
 
Students also base their study behavior based on
their models of how people (specifically
themselves) learn.
Determines whether or not they go to class, if
and how well complete assignments, how they
study material, and when material is mastered.
The better the model, the better the student
learns
If the model is flawed or simplistic, it will
undermine student learning
 
Some Teacher Beliefs that are Related to Poor
Teaching Effectiveness
 
I teach, but it isn’t my responsibility whether
students learn
I teach this way because my integrity prevents
me from “watering down” the material
Students won’t appreciate my teaching until
later
My teaching is good enough; there is no need to
improve
Good teachers are born, not made
Teaching well only requires a good knowledge of
the material
 
Beliefs about Learning that
Make You Stupid
 
Learning is fast
Being good at a subject is a matter of
inborn talent rather than hard work,
Knowledge is composed of isolated facts
I’m really good at multi-tasking, especially
during class or studying
A Demonstration of Multi-tasking
 
Countdown from 10 to 0 out loud as quickly
as you can
Say the letter of the alphabet from A to K
out loud as quickly as you can
Now alternate the two: Start with 10 – A,
and countdown with numbers and up with
letters, out loud as fast as you can.
 
When I Began Teaching I Believed:
 
Even at its best, teaching is no more than an
invitation to learn
Whether students learn is not up to me
Teaching quality is measured in terms of how current
the information is, the accuracy of the information
and how clearly it is explained.
The measure of a good test is that it yields a good
spread of scores.
Rigorous teachers give hard assignments and hard
exams, and that’s the best way for students to learn.
Really effective teachers get bad evaluations. It
means that students had to work hard and learn.
Teachers who get high evaluations are probably more
popular than good.
 
Consequences of Traditional Model of
Teaching and Learning
 
Lack of helpful advice to struggling students
Study harder and study longer
You are stupid and lazy
Teaching is still fad driven
Teaching methods change, but teaching does not
advance
Lack of a framework to help teachers improve
You can’t fix a component of teaching that you
don’t know exists
 
“Enlightened” Beliefs
about Teaching and Learning
 
Passive learning, like lecture and note taking is bad;
active learning, like collaboration and discussion, is
good.
The teacher as expert is bad; the teacher as facilitator
is good.
Sage on the stage vs. the Guide from the side
Multiple choice exams test facts and are easy; essays
test understanding and are hard.
Teaching quality is determined by the methods you use
(collaborative, active, interactive, etc.)
I use PBL, or clickers, or service learning, so I must be
effective
 
Teaching vs. Learning
 
These beliefs about teaching are based on what
the teacher does, and not what the student
learns.
Student learning is the sole criterion of effective
teaching
What is your evidence of student learning?
Teaching becomes a problem in applied
psychology
As complex as any research problem
Mastering teaching takes a lifetime, and there is
always more to learn
The scholarship of teaching and learning
 
Put another way
 
If teaching is nothing more than explaining
material well, then it is easy and most anyone can
learn to do it.
If teaching is about developing student
understanding, then teaching is challenging and
you will spend your entire career mastering it.
 
So how accurate are 
your
 beliefs
about how people learn?
 
 
Which of the following is the MOST important
ingredient for successful learning?
 
1.
The intention and desire to learn
2.
Paying close attention to the material as you
study
3.
Learning in a way that matches your
personal Learning Style?
4.
The time you spend studying
5.
What you think about while studying
 
Read the instructions for the
demonstration to yourselves and do
your best to follow them.
 
 
Levels of Processing
 
Shallow processing focuses on spelling,
appearance and sound.
Rote memorization of facts
Flashcards
Deep processing focuses on subjective
meaning.
Relating new information to prior knowledge
Making information personally meaningful
Rate each word
Do you find the word
Pleasant?
Does the word contain
an E or G?
 
These are 
orienting tasks 
that cause you
to think in deep or shallow ways,
regardless of your intention
 
Deep processing: You are
relating  the words to your
own meaningful experiences.
 
Shallow processing: You are
focusing on spelling.
Four different conditions
Study Conditions
 
Intention vs. Level of Processing
Which of the following is the MOST important
ingredient for successful learning?
 
1.
The intention and desire to learn
2.
Paying close attention to the material as you
study
3.
Learning in a way that matches your
personal Learning Style?
4.
The time you spend studying
5.
What you think about while studying
 
Learning Strategies
 
Intention and motivation to learn are not
important
Attention and amount of study is necessary, but
not sufficient for learning
Deep level of processing is critical for learning
elaborative, distinctive, personal, appropriate
Students have highly practiced poor learning
strategies
Consider your learning activities in terms of level
of processing
Assignments, problem sets, questions, examples
Studying, note taking, reading, writing, listening
 
These findings are strongly
counterintuitive
 
The more students study, the more they learn
All study is effective, only amount and intensity
matter
Motivation automatically improves study
effectiveness
Learning is hard work, but not all hard work
leads to learning
 
Achieving Deep Processing while
Studying
 
As you study, follow these principles:
Elaboration: How does this concept relate to
other concepts?
Distinctiveness: How is this concept different from
other concepts?
Personal: How can I relate this information to my
personal experience?
Appropriate to Retrieval and Application: How am
I expected to use or apply this concept?
These properties lead to development of
connected understanding
 
Video Series: How to Get the Most Out
of Studying
http://www.samford.edu/how-to-study/
 
How to Get the Most Out of Studying
 
Video 1: Beliefs That Make You Fail…Or Succeed
The first video examines common mistaken beliefs students often
possess that undermine their learning.
Video 2: What Students Should Understand About How People
Learn
The second video introduces a simple but powerful theory of memory,
Levels of Processing, that can help students improve their study.
Video 3: Cognitive Principles for Optimizing Learning
The third video operationalizes the concept of level of processing into
four principles that students can use to develop effective study
strategies.
Video 4: Putting the Principles for Optimizing Learning into Practice
The fourth video applies the principles of deep processing to common
study situations, including note taking and highlighting while reading.
Video 5: I Blew the Exam, Now What?
This video addresses what students should and should not do when
they earn a bad grade on an exam.
 
 
So shouldn’t we design pedagogies
that make students use deep
processing all the time?
 
 
Cognitive Load Theory
 
Mental effort is the amount of concentration that a
person has available to devote to tasks
Mental effort is always a limited resource
Cognitive Load is the total amount of mental effort a
task requires to complete it
A person can do multiple tasks at once as long as the
total cognitive load does not exceed available mental
effort
If cognitive load exceeds available mental effort, then
performance suffers
 
Student mental effort must meet the demands
of instructional mental load
Teachers
design
instruction
Students possess
prior knowledge,
learning strategies
and mental effort
Tasks and concepts
possess difficulty
Available
Mental
Effort
Germane Load
(Optimize)
Extraneous Load
(Minimize)
 
Cognitive Load
Intrinsic Load
(Manage)
 
Name the days of the week out loud
and in order as fast as you can
 
 
About this Activity
 
Were you 
engaged
?
Were you engaged in 
active problem solving?
Were you
 working hard and struggling?
What was the 4
th
 day in the list?
 
Name the Days of the Week as Quickly as
You Can
 
In Alphabetical Order
Friday
Monday
Saturday
Sunday
Thursday
Tuesday
Wednesday
 
Implications of Cognitive Load Theory
 
If the cognitive load demanded of students exceeds
their available mental effort, then learning will not
occur
If the cognitive load demanded of students takes up
most or all of available cognitive effort, then there
will not be enough mental effort available for
learning or schema formation
Deeper level of processing causes greater cognitive
load
Teachers must monitor, manage and minimize
cognitive load to allow schema development as well
as design activities to promote schema development
 
Cognitive Load of Various Tasks
(adapted from Piolat, Olive & Kellogg, 2004)
 
About Engagement, Active Learning,
and Struggle
 
Engagement, being “active”, and mental
struggle do not always lead to effective
learning
Neither does deep processing if cognitive load
is too great
Teachers must balance deep processing and
cognitive load
Teaching is an interaction of competing forces
 
The Complexity of Teaching
 
The number of teaching methods is large and diverse
No teaching method is without limitations and pitfalls
Teaching is contextual; teaching effectiveness involves
the dynamic interaction of multiple factors
Teaching is a 
contextual interaction
. The best method for
any situation depends on:
the outcomes that are desired 
by
the characteristics of the students 
by
the characteristics of the instructor 
by
the curriculum and content
No single best way to teach
An effective teacher must be knowledgeable about
multiple teaching methods, select appropriately among
them to achieve desired goals, and make adjustments
during teaching.
 
Teaching As a Contextual Outcome of
Multiple Agents (TACOMA) Model
Topic, Content, and
Learning Goals
Level of Student
Understanding
Characteristics of the Teacher
 
Post-event Reflection
 
Manipulate
 
Monitor,
Manage,
Manipulate
 
Monitor
 
Manipulate
 
Student-Teacher Rapport
and Classroom Atmosphere
 
In-the-Moment
Reflection
 
Pre-event
Reflection
Form of
Assessment
Teaching
Strategies
Characteristics
of the Learner
Learning
Strategies
 
Take Home Message for Learning
 
The measure of effective teaching is student
learning
Levels of Processing:
Engagement and active learning aren’t enough
Cognitive Load
Must always consider cognitive load of pedagogy
Must create pedagogy keeping them in balance
Teaching is a complex interaction of factors that
the teacher must manipulate, manage, and
monitor
No single  best teaching method
Requires constant monitoring to keep students on
track.
 
Thank You!
Questions?
 
Stephen L. Chew
slchew@samford.edu
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Explore how misconceptions about learning impact teaching effectiveness and student performance. Learn how cognitive research can enhance teaching methods. Discover the importance of accurate knowledge for effective teaching. Identify common beliefs that hinder teaching effectiveness and student learning.


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  1. Improving Student Learning by Addressing Student and Teacher Misconceptions about How People Learn Stephen L. Chew Department of Psychology Samford University Birmingham, Alabama slchew@samford.edu Indiana State University March 13, 2012

  2. Goals of the Presentation Discuss misconceptions about how people learn can undermine both teaching effectiveness and student performance Demonstrate how cognitive research can improve teaching and learning Provide you with accurate and practical information for improving teaching and learning from cognitive research Explain the complexities of effective teaching and learning

  3. Three Kinds of Knowledge for Effective Teaching Knowledge of Your Field Effective Teaching Knowledge Of How People Learn Knowledge of How People Learn Your Field

  4. Beliefs about How People Learn Teaching requires a mental model of how people learn. Most teachers cannot articulate their model of learning, but they have one. Determines which teaching methods are selected, how they are implemented and assessed, and how to adjust if there are problems. If the model is accurate, the teacher will be effective If it is flawed or simplistic, the teacher will be less effective

  5. Beliefs about How People Learn Students also base their study behavior based on their models of how people (specifically themselves) learn. Determines whether or not they go to class, if and how well complete assignments, how they study material, and when material is mastered. The better the model, the better the student learns If the model is flawed or simplistic, it will undermine student learning

  6. Some Teacher Beliefs that are Related to Poor Teaching Effectiveness I teach, but it isn t my responsibility whether students learn I teach this way because my integrity prevents me from watering down the material Students won t appreciate my teaching until later My teaching is good enough; there is no need to improve Good teachers are born, not made Teaching well only requires a good knowledge of the material

  7. Beliefs about Learning that Make You Stupid Learning is fast Being good at a subject is a matter of inborn talent rather than hard work, Knowledge is composed of isolated facts I m really good at multi-tasking, especially during class or studying

  8. A Demonstration of Multi-tasking Countdown from 10 to 0 out loud as quickly as you can Say the letter of the alphabet from A to K out loud as quickly as you can Now alternate the two: Start with 10 A, and countdown with numbers and up with letters, out loud as fast as you can.

  9. When I Began Teaching I Believed: Even at its best, teaching is no more than an invitation to learn Whether students learn is not up to me Teaching quality is measured in terms of how current the information is, the accuracy of the information and how clearly it is explained. The measure of a good test is that it yields a good spread of scores. Rigorous teachers give hard assignments and hard exams, and that s the best way for students to learn. Really effective teachers get bad evaluations. It means that students had to work hard and learn. Teachers who get high evaluations are probably more popular than good.

  10. Consequences of Traditional Model of Teaching and Learning Lack of helpful advice to struggling students Study harder and study longer You are stupid and lazy Teaching is still fad driven Teaching methods change, but teaching does not advance Lack of a framework to help teachers improve You can t fix a component of teaching that you don t know exists

  11. Enlightened Beliefs about Teaching and Learning Passive learning, like lecture and note taking is bad; active learning, like collaboration and discussion, is good. The teacher as expert is bad; the teacher as facilitator is good. Sage on the stage vs. the Guide from the side Multiple choice exams test facts and are easy; essays test understanding and are hard. Teaching quality is determined by the methods you use (collaborative, active, interactive, etc.) I use PBL, or clickers, or service learning, so I must be effective

  12. Teaching vs. Learning These beliefs about teaching are based on what the teacher does, and not what the student learns. Student learning is the sole criterion of effective teaching What is your evidence of student learning? Teaching becomes a problem in applied psychology As complex as any research problem Mastering teaching takes a lifetime, and there is always more to learn The scholarship of teaching and learning

  13. Put another way If teaching is nothing more than explaining material well, then it is easy and most anyone can learn to do it. If teaching is about developing student understanding, then teaching is challenging and you will spend your entire career mastering it.

  14. So how accurate are your beliefs about how people learn?

  15. Which of the following is the MOST important ingredient for successful learning? 1. The intention and desire to learn 2. Paying close attention to the material as you study 3. Learning in a way that matches your personal Learning Style? 4. The time you spend studying 5. What you think about while studying

  16. Read the instructions for the demonstration to yourselves and do your best to follow them.

  17. Levels of Processing Shallow processing focuses on spelling, appearance and sound. Rote memorization of facts Flashcards Deep processing focuses on subjective meaning. Relating new information to prior knowledge Making information personally meaningful

  18. Rate each word Do you find the word Pleasant? Does the word contain an E or G? Deep processing: You are relating the words to your own meaningful experiences. Shallow processing: You are focusing on spelling. These are orienting tasks that cause you to think in deep or shallow ways, regardless of your intention

  19. Four different conditions Be forewarned you will be asked to recall all the words Front Left Right Shallow Warned about Recall Deep Warned about Recall Deep Not Warned Shallow Not Warned

  20. Study Conditions 1. If motivation to learn matters, the front tables should recall best 3. If both deep processing and motivation matter, the front right should recall best Front Right Left Shallow Warned about Recall Deep Warned about Recall 2. If deep processing matters, The two right sections should recall best Deep Not Warned Shallow Not Warned

  21. Intention vs. Level of Processing Intentional Incidental 80 69 68 70 67 60 50 43 % Recall 39 40 30 20 10 0 Shallow: E Checking Deep: Pleasantness Level of Procssing Control

  22. Which of the following is the MOST important ingredient for successful learning? 1. The intention and desire to learn 2. Paying close attention to the material as you study 3. Learning in a way that matches your personal Learning Style? 4. The time you spend studying 5. What you think about while studying

  23. Learning Strategies Intention and motivation to learn are not important Attention and amount of study is necessary, but not sufficient for learning Deep level of processing is critical for learning elaborative, distinctive, personal, appropriate Students have highly practiced poor learning strategies Consider your learning activities in terms of level of processing Assignments, problem sets, questions, examples Studying, note taking, reading, writing, listening

  24. These findings are strongly counterintuitive The more students study, the more they learn All study is effective, only amount and intensity matter Motivation automatically improves study effectiveness Learning is hard work, but not all hard work leads to learning

  25. Achieving Deep Processing while Studying As you study, follow these principles: Elaboration: How does this concept relate to other concepts? Distinctiveness: How is this concept different from other concepts? Personal: How can I relate this information to my personal experience? Appropriate to Retrieval and Application: How am I expected to use or apply this concept? These properties lead to development of connected understanding

  26. Video Series: How to Get the Most Out of Studying http://www.samford.edu/how-to-study/

  27. How to Get the Most Out of Studying Video 1: Beliefs That Make You Fail Or Succeed The first video examines common mistaken beliefs students often possess that undermine their learning. Video 2: What Students Should Understand About How People Learn The second video introduces a simple but powerful theory of memory, Levels of Processing, that can help students improve their study. Video 3: Cognitive Principles for Optimizing Learning The third video operationalizes the concept of level of processing into four principles that students can use to develop effective study strategies. Video 4: Putting the Principles for Optimizing Learning into Practice The fourth video applies the principles of deep processing to common study situations, including note taking and highlighting while reading. Video 5: I Blew the Exam, Now What? This video addresses what students should and should not do when they earn a bad grade on an exam.

  28. So shouldnt we design pedagogies that make students use deep processing all the time?

  29. Cognitive Load Theory Mental effort is the amount of concentration that a person has available to devote to tasks Mental effort is always a limited resource Cognitive Load is the total amount of mental effort a task requires to complete it A person can do multiple tasks at once as long as the total cognitive load does not exceed available mental effort If cognitive load exceeds available mental effort, then performance suffers

  30. Student mental effort must meet the demands of instructional mental load Students possess prior knowledge, learning strategies and mental effort Cognitive Load Extraneous Load (Minimize) Teachers design instruction Germane Load (Optimize) Available Mental Effort Intrinsic Load (Manage) Tasks and concepts possess difficulty

  31. Name the days of the week out loud and in order as fast as you can

  32. About this Activity Were you engaged? Were you engaged in active problem solving? Were you working hard and struggling? What was the 4th day in the list?

  33. Name the Days of the Week as Quickly as You Can In Alphabetical Order Friday Monday Saturday Sunday Thursday Tuesday Wednesday

  34. Implications of Cognitive Load Theory If the cognitive load demanded of students exceeds their available mental effort, then learning will not occur If the cognitive load demanded of students takes up most or all of available cognitive effort, then there will not be enough mental effort available for learning or schema formation Deeper level of processing causes greater cognitive load Teachers must monitor, manage and minimize cognitive load to allow schema development as well as design activities to promote schema development

  35. Cognitive Load of Various Tasks (adapted from Piolat, Olive & Kellogg, 2004) Planning Revising Translating Composing a text Notetaking from a lecture Task.. Playing Chess (experts) Playing Chess (novices) Reading a text Reading sentences Intentional learning Incidental learning Text Copying 0 100 200 300 400 Cognitive effort (IRT in ms.)

  36. About Engagement, Active Learning, and Struggle Engagement, being active , and mental struggle do not always lead to effective learning Neither does deep processing if cognitive load is too great Teachers must balance deep processing and cognitive load Teaching is an interaction of competing forces

  37. The Complexity of Teaching The number of teaching methods is large and diverse No teaching method is without limitations and pitfalls Teaching is contextual; teaching effectiveness involves the dynamic interaction of multiple factors Teaching is a contextual interaction. The best method for any situation depends on: the outcomes that are desired by the characteristics of the students by the characteristics of the instructor by the curriculum and content No single best way to teach An effective teacher must be knowledgeable about multiple teaching methods, select appropriately among them to achieve desired goals, and make adjustments during teaching.

  38. Teaching As a Contextual Outcome of Multiple Agents (TACOMA) Model Characteristics of the Teacher In-the-Moment Reflection Pre-event Reflection Topic, Content, and Learning Goals Monitor, Manage, Manipulate Manipulate Monitor Manipulate Teaching Strategies Characteristics of the Learner Form of Assessment Learning Strategies Post-event Reflection Level of Student Understanding Student-Teacher Rapport and Classroom Atmosphere

  39. Take Home Message for Learning The measure of effective teaching is student learning Levels of Processing: Engagement and active learning aren t enough Cognitive Load Must always consider cognitive load of pedagogy Must create pedagogy keeping them in balance Teaching is a complex interaction of factors that the teacher must manipulate, manage, and monitor No single best teaching method Requires constant monitoring to keep students on track.

  40. Thank You! Questions? Stephen L. Chew slchew@samford.edu

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