Writing and Publishing Journal Articles
AuthorAID Core Slides:
Writing and Publishing
Journal Articles
These slides are adapted from some that Barbara Gastel
(
) used in teaching in 2022 and 2023. To
keep the file size small, visuals have been largely omitted.b-gastel@tamu.edu
Main Topics
•
Preparing to write a journal article
•
Structure of journal articles
•
Writing a scientific paper: section by section
•
Editing your own work
•
Publishing a paper
Preparing to Write a Paper
Deciding When (or What) to Publish
•
Some factors to consider: quality of the work, extent of the
work, interest to others
•
Suggestions:
–
Seek guidance from those in your field who are more experienced in
publishing journal articles.
–
Present your work orally first. Doing so can help in
(1) deciding whether the work is publishable
(2) shaping the paper
Identifying a Target Journal: Some Basics
•
If possible, decide early (before drafting the paper). It’s better
not to write the paper and then look for a journal. Deciding
early can help you target your paper better.
•
Look for journals that have published work similar to yours.
•
Consider journals that have published work you will cite.
•
Consult the journal’s website and instructions to authors.
Some Factors to Consider
in Choosing a Target Journal
•
Aims and scope of journal
•
Audience
•
Prestige
•
Impact [to be discussed more later]
•
Access (open access; general accessibility)
•
Speed of acceptance and publication; availability of article-based
(continuous) publication
•
Quality of reproduction of figures
•
Publication costs, if any
•
Likelihood of acceptance
To Be Avoided: “Predatory” or Otherwise
Questionable Journals
“Journals” that obtain publication fees but are not valid peer-reviewed
scholarly publications
•
Some clues that a journal
might
be predatory (especially if several such
items are present):
–
Unrealistically broad scope
–
Unrealistically short stated turnaround times
–
Flashy but poorly crafted, ungrammatical websites
–
Fake metrics
–
Incomplete contact information
–
Other
See
https://thinkchecksubmit.org/
Impact
•
Impact Factor (from Journal Citation Reports—Clarivate Analytics)
–
Indicates how much, on average, articles in the journal are cited
–
Does not say how much a given article will be cited
–
Not valid for comparison from field to field
–
Changes over time
•
Other citation metrics
•
Other impact—for example, on practice, policy, teaching,
and media coverage
Some Current Issues
•
Whether to post articles in preprint servers before submitting
them to journals
–
Long tradition of doing so in physics and related fields
–
Recently, a considerable increase in doing so in biological fields,
especially in the wake of COVID-19
•
Current or proposed requirements by some funding sources
that research they fund be openly accessible
Journals’ Instructions to Authors
•
Usual locations: on the journal’s website and in the journal
•
A large collection of links to instructions to authors in the
health sciences:
http://mulford.utoledo.edu/instr/
•
General advice: Select your first-choice journal early, and
obtain its instructions immediately
Using the Journal’s Instructions
•
Read the instructions to authors before starting to prepare
your paper.
•
Consult the instructions while preparing your paper.
•
Check the instructions again before submitting your paper.
Some Questions the Instructions May Answer
•
What categories of article does the journal publish?
•
What is the maximum length of articles?
•
What is the maximum length of abstracts?
•
What sections should the article include? What are the
guidelines for each?
•
Does the journal have a template for articles? If so, how can it
be accessed?
•
What guidelines should be followed regarding writing style?
Some Questions (cont.)
•
How many figures and tables are allowed? What are the
requirements for them?
•
In what format should references appear?
•
Does the journal post supplementary material online? If so,
how should it be provided?
•
In what electronic format should the paper be prepared?
•
How should the paper be submitted?
Beyond the Instructions
•
Be sure to look at some recent issues of the journal (and some
recent papers in those issues).
•
Doing so can help you gear your paper to the journal.
Note: Recently, some journals have become more flexible about the
specific format (reference style etc.) in which papers are initially
submitted. However, if a paper is then accepted, the journal may require
the authors to revise the formatting to suit its requirements.
Structure of Journal Articles
Structure of Journal Articles Reporting Research
•
One common structure: IMRAD
–
I
ntroduction:
What was the question?
–
M
ethods:
How did you try to answer it?
–
R
esults:
What did you find?
–
(
A
nd)
–
D
iscussion:
What does it mean?
(Overall structure of content: like an hourglass—
broad, then narrow, then broad.)
Article Structures (cont.)
•
Structures can differ among academic fields.
•
Non-IMRAD structures in some journals:
–
IRDAM
–
IMRDRDRD . . .
–
Essay format, with headings chosen by author
–
Other
Note
•
People read sections of journal articles
in various orders.
–
What order, or orders, do you
usually follow?
•
Papers should be written accordingly.
–
Doing so entails ensuring that the article
makes sense even if a reader does not
begin at the beginning.
Writing a Scientific Paper:
Section by Section
Recap: Overall Structure of a Paper
•
Broad (context for the current research)
•
Narrow (focusing on the current research)
•
Broad again (putting the findings in context)
•
Like an hourglass
Overall Structure
•
(Title)
•
(Authors)
•
(Abstract)
•
Introduction
•
Methods
•
Results
•
Discussion
•
(Acknowledgments)
•
(References)
In what order do you like to write the parts of a
scientific paper?
Why?
One Common Order for Writing a Paper
•
Methods
•
Results
•
Discussion
•
Introduction
•
Final version of abstract
•
Final version of title
The slides in this section will be largely in this order.
Authors
(and Acknowledgments)
Authors
•
Those with important intellectual contributions to the work
A resource:
http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles-
and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and-
contributors.html
•
Often listed largely from greatest contributions to least
•
Head of research group often is listed last
•
In some fields, listed alphabetically
•
Useful to list one’s name in a consistent way on every paper
ORCID: A Researcher Identification Number
•
Stands for Open Researcher and Contributor ID
•
“ORCID provides a persistent digital identifier that
distinguishes you from every other researcher”
•
ORCID identifiers can aid in tracking authors of papers, grants,
etc.
•
Many journals and funders now require use of ORCID IDs
•
See
http://orcid.org/
Corresponding Author
•
The author who communicates with the journal and others
•
Should be someone readily reachable during review and
publication of the paper
•
Views vary as to whether it is prestigious to have this role
Acknowledgments
•
Often optional
•
A place to thank people who helped with the work but did not
make contributions qualifying for authorship
Examples: people who provided advice on the research, shared
equipment or materials, or gave feedback on a draft of the paper
•
Permission should be obtained from people you wish to list
•
Sometimes the place where sources of financial support are
stated
Crediting AI
•
If you use an artificial intelligence (AI) tool, such as ChatGPT,
to help write your article, should you list it as an author?
•
No, it doesn’t meet the criteria for authorship.
•
However, if you use AI in this way, your paper must say so and
explain (in the methods section or elsewhere) how it was used.
•
For more, see
Authorship and AI tools | COPE: Committee on
Publication Ethics
.
The Methods Section
Purposes of the Methods Section
•
To allow others to replicate what you did
–
In order to test it
–
In order to do further research
•
To allow others to evaluate what you did
–
To determine whether the conclusions seem valid
–
To determine whether the findings seem applicable to other
situations (external validity)
Methods: Basic Information to Include
•
In most cases, overview of study design
•
Identification of (if applicable)
–
Equipment, organisms, reagents, etc., used (and sources thereof;
details to provide in that regard may vary)
–
Approval of human or animal research by an appropriate committee
–
Statistical methods
–
Other
•
Procedures
Methods (cont.)
•
In some journals, may include subheads
•
May include tables and figures (examples: flowcharts, maps,
diagrams, tables of experimental conditions)
•
Should be written in past tense
•
Often, may include passive voice
•
Helpful to use papers published in the same journal as models
Methods: An Issue—
How Much Detail to Provide About
•
Well-known methods (can just mention and cite)
•
Methods previously described but not well known
(describe briefly and cite)
•
Methods that you yourself devised (describe in detail,
or perhaps publish a methods paper and cite it)
(a principle here and elsewhere: serve the reader)
Citing References: Some Basics
Functions of References
•
To give credit to others for their work
•
To add credibility to your work by showing that you used valid
information sources
•
To help show how your work is related to previous work
•
To help readers find further information
References: Importance of Accuracy
•
Studies show that many references are inaccurate.
•
For references to fulfill their functions,
they must be accurate. Therefore
–
Make sure you accurately state what the cited material says.
–
Make sure all information in the citation (for example,
author list, article title, journal title, volume, year, pages)
is accurate.
Another Reason Your References
Should Be Accurate
Often, authors whose work you cite will be your
peer reviewers. Inaccurate references to their
work will not impress them favorably.
Formats
•
Various formats exist for citation in text—for example:
–
Accuracy of references is important (Day and Gastel, 2022).
–
Accuracy of references is important.
3
•
Various formats exist for items in reference lists—for example:
–
Pineda D. 2003. Communication of science in Colombia. Sci. Ed. 26:91-
92.
–
Pineda D. Communication of science in Colombia. Sci Ed 2003;26:91-2.
Be sure to use the format that your target journal requests.
Citation Management Software
•
Examples: EndNote, RefWorks, Zotero, Mendeley, Papers, Qiqqa
•
Allows you to keep a database of references
•
In many cases, provides the citations and references in the
proper format for your target journal
A source of information:
https://library.tamu.edu/research/citation_management.html
Placement of Citations
•
Ambiguous:
–
This compound has been found in humans, dogs, rabbits, and
squirrels (Tuda and Gastel, 1997; Xie and Lozano, 2023; Flores, 2002).
–
This compound has been found in humans, dogs, rabbits, and
squirrels.
1,4,7
•
Clear:
–
This compound has been found in humans (Tuda and Gastel, 1997),
dogs (Xie and Lozano, 2023), and rabbits and squirrels (Flores, 2002).
–
This compound has been found in humans,
1
dogs,
4
rabbits,
7
and
squirrels.
7
Other Advice on References
•
If you haven’t read an item, don’t cite it.
If an article isn’t freely accessible online, you may well be able to
obtain it in another way—for example, through a library, through an
author’s or institution’s website, or by contacting the author.
•
Check each reference against the original source.
•
Carefully follow the journal’s instructions to authors.
•
Remember that style manuals can be excellent resources in this regard.
•
Consider using references published in the same journal as models.
•
Don’t waste lots of time formatting unusual types of references. A
copyeditor at the journal can do final formatting.
The Results Section
T
h
e
R
e
s
u
l
t
s
S
e
c
t
i
o
n
•
The core of the paper
•
Should present results in a logical order
•
Often includes tables, figures, or both
•
Should summarize findings rather than
providing data in great detail
•
Typically, should present results but not comment on them
•
(Some journals, however, combine the Results and the
Discussion.)
Verb Tense for the Results Section:
Past Tense
Examples from “Seven-Year Efficacy of RTS,S/AS01 Malaria
Vaccine among Young African Children” (published in the
New England Journal of Medicine
):
•
“Of the 447 children enrolled in the original trial, 312
completed
all
three extensions of follow-up . . . ”
•
“Efficacy
was
consistently lower in the cohort with high exposure to
malaria parasites than in the cohort with low exposure (Table 2).”
•
“All cases of severe malaria
resolved
without long-term sequelae.”
Results Sections of Papers with Tables or Figures
•
How much should the information in the text overlap that in
the tables and figures?
–
Not extensive overlap
–
In general, text should present only the main points from the tables
and figures
–
Perhaps also include a few of the most important data
•
Remember to mention each table or figure. Do so as soon as
readers might want to see it.
Mentioning Tables and Figures:
Some Writing Advice
•
In citing tables and figures, generally emphasize the finding,
not the table or figure.
–
Usually not so good
: Table 3 shows that researchers who took this
course published twice as many papers per year.
–
Usually better
: Researchers who took this course published twice as
many papers per year (Table 3).
Tables and Figures:
Some Basics
Tables: A Few Suggestions
•
Use tables only if text will not suffice.
•
Design tables to be understandable without the text.
•
Organize each table in a logical way.
•
If a paper includes a series of tables, use the same format for
each.
•
Be sure to follow the instructions to authors.
Figures: A Few Suggestions
•
Use figures (graphs, diagrams, maps, photographs, etc.)
only if they will help convey your information.
•
Avoid including too much information in one figure.
•
Make sure that all lettering will be large enough once the
figures are published.
•
Follow the journal’s instructions.
A General Suggestion
•
Look at tables and figures in journal articles presenting
research similar to yours.
–
In your target journal.
–
In other good journals.
•
Use these tables and figures as models when designing your
own tables and figures.
The Discussion
Discussion
•
One of the more difficult parts to write, because have more
choice of what to say
•
Often should begin with a brief summary of the main findings
•
Should answer the question(s) stated in the introduction (or
address the hypothesis or hypotheses stated in the
introduction)
The Discussion: Possible Content (cont.)
•
If the results contain discrepancies, possible reasons for them
•
Relationship to findings of other research—for example:
–
Similarities to previous findings (your own, others’, or both)
–
Differences from previous findings
–
Possible reasons for similarities and differences
Note: Your results are like one piece of a puzzle.
The discussion should help show how that piece fits in.
The Discussion: Possible Content (cont.)
•
Applications and implications—for example:
–
Possible uses of the findings (in health care, education, policy,
industry, agriculture, etc.)
–
Relationship of the findings to theories or models:
•
Do the findings support them?
•
Do they refute them?
•
Do they suggest modifications?
The Discussion: Possible Content (cont.)
•
Strengths of the study
–
For example, superior methods, extensive data
•
Limitations of the study
–
For example: small sample size, short follow-up, incomplete data,
possible sources of bias, problems with experimental procedures
–
Better to mention limitations than for peer reviewers and readers to
think that you’re unaware of them
–
If the limitations seem unlikely to affect the conclusions, you can
explain why
The Discussion: Possible Content (cont.)
•
Other research needed—for example:
–
To address questions still unanswered
–
To address new questions raised by the findings
Discussion (cont.)
•
Typically, should move from specific to general, rather like an
inverted funnel
•
In some journals, may be followed by a conclusions section
•
Otherwise, the last paragraph of the discussion serves as the
conclusion
The Introduction
Purposes of the Introduction
•
To provide background
–
In order to help readers understand the paper
–
In order to help readers appreciate the importance of the research
•
To do one or both of the following:
–
Identify the question or questions that the research addressed
–
State the hypothesis or hypotheses that the research tested
Length of Introduction
•
Articles in biomedical journals: tend to have a short
introduction (a few paragraphs or less)
•
Articles in some other journals: tend to have a long
introduction (or an introduction and a literature review
section)
Gearing the Introduction to the Audience
•
Papers in relatively general journals: Introduction must provide
basic background information.
•
Papers in specialized journals: Introduction can assume that
readers have more knowledge about the research topic.
Structure of the Introduction
•
Introduction typically should be funnel-shaped, moving from
general to specific
•
A common structure:
–
Information on importance of topic
–
Highlights of relevant previous research
–
Identification of unanswered question(s)—in other words, a gap
in existing knowledge
–
Approach you used to seek the answer(s)
–
(In some cases, the main findings)
Overall Structure of a Paper: Like an Hourglass
When to Write the Introduction
•
Sometimes good to write the introduction last
–
“Until you know what you’re introducing, you can’t introduce it.”
•
Sometimes good to write it first, to help provide focus
•
After writing all the sections of the paper, revise the paper as a
whole (typically several times)
Titles
(and Keywords)
Title
•
The fewest possible words that adequately indicate the
contents of the paper
•
Important in literature searching
•
Should not include extra words, such as “A Study of” or
“Observations on”
•
Should be specific enough
•
Generally should not include abbreviations
•
(Running title: short version of title—appears at tops of pages)
Keywords
•
Required by some journals
•
Can aid in literature searching
•
Sometimes may need to come from specific lists of terms
•
Some journals say not to use words already in the title
The Abstract
The Abstract
•
An important part of the paper
–
Widely read
–
Used to decide whether to read the rest of the paper
•
Briefly summarizes the paper
•
Organized like the paper (in sort of a mini-IMRAD format)
•
In some journals, a structured abstract
(with standardized headings)
•
Should be the last item finalized
Some Special Kinds of Abstracts
(containing visual images)
•
Graphical abstracts—commonly one panel, created by author—
presents take-home message of paper—for some guidelines, see
https://www.cell.com/pb/assets/raw/shared/figureguidelines/GA_guid
e.pdf
•
Visual abstracts—commonly three panels, created by journal—tells a
story (such as background, data, advice)—for examples, see
https://www.cdc.gov/genomics/visual/visual_abstract.htm
and
https://www.nejm.org/multimedia/visual-abstracts
Editing Your Own Work
(a next step once you have compiled the parts of
your paper)
Why bother editing your own work?
•
Can increase likelihood of acceptance
–
By meeting criteria for content and style
–
By avoiding misinterpretation
–
By creating a good impression
•
Can aid communication with readers
•
Can minimize editing by others (and thus decrease likelihood
of distortion)
The Essentials
•
Content
•
Organization
•
Clarity
In editing one’s own work, checking for these items is more important
than polishing the language.
Gaining Sufficient Distance to Be Objective
•
Setting the draft aside for a while
•
Printing out the draft
–
Offers a fresh view
–
Helps in noticing macro-level aspects
•
Changing the look of the draft—for example:
–
Changing the typeface
–
Increasing the margins
–
Printing the draft on colored paper
•
Reading the draft aloud (very helpful)
Scientific Papers: Some Items to Check
Does the title accurately and concisely reflect the content?
Are the appropriate people listed as authors?
Does the introduction provide sufficient context?
Does the introduction show what gap the research is to fill?
Does the introduction indicate the hypotheses, research questions, or objectives?
Does the methods section provide sufficient information to replicate the research?
Does the methods section provide sufficient information to evaluate the research?
Are sources of reagents, equipment, animals, etc., identified?
If humans or animals were studied, are approvals noted?
(more)
Items to Check (continued)
Are the results presented in logical order?
Are the results presented in appropriate detail?
Were appropriate statistical methods used?
Does the discussion address the research questions, hypotheses, or objectives
posed in the introduction?
Does the discussion put the results in sufficient context?
If appropriate, does the discussion address strengths and limitations of the
research?
Are the appropriate entities acknowledged?
Does the abstract accurately reflect the content of the paper?
Further Guidance:
“
Editing and Proofreading Your Own Work
”
Publishing a Paper
Submitting the Paper
•
Electronic submission
–
Commonly via an online submission system
–
Sometimes as an email attachment
•
Inclusion of a cover letter (conventional or electronic) if
appropriate
•
Completion of required forms, if any
Some Items a Cover Letter May Do
•
Identify the article (by title and authors)
•
Note that journal requirements are followed
•
State the article category or intended journal section
•
Provide context—for example, previous presentation of the work
at a conference
•
Describe the importance of the research
•
Explain suitability for the journal
•
Recommend reviewers
•
Request exclusion of certain potential reviewers
Some Resources: Cover Letters
•
some information and a template
•
a set of
pointers
•
a
video
•
an
editorial
•
a
source of templates
•
a
blog post
•
and
more
and
more
Some Categories of Editors at Journals
•
Helpful to know because you might interact with each
•
Main categories:
–
Editor-in-chief (and sometimes associate editors etc.)—concerned
mainly with content
–
Managing editor(s)—concerned mainly
with administration of the journal
–
Manuscript editor(s)—improve the writing
and maintain a consistent style
Initial Screening by the Journal
•
For appropriateness of subject matter
•
For completeness
•
For overall compliance with instructions
•
For overall quality (sometimes)
•
For importance and breadth of appeal (sometimes)
Peer Review
•
Evaluation by experts in the field
•
Focuses mainly on content, not writing style
•
Purposes
–
To help the editor decide whether to publish the paper
–
To help the authors improve the paper,
regardless of whether the journal accepts it
The Editor’s Decision
•
Not just a vote
•
Based on the peer reviewers’ advice, the editor’s (or editors’)
own evaluation(s), the space available, other factors
•
Options:
–
Accept as is (rare)
–
Accept if suitably revised
–
Reconsider if revised
–
Reject
–
(Sometimes: convey to another journal in the same group)
Revising a Paper
•
When asked to make revisions, it’s normal to feel disappointed
or even hostile at first. Perhaps take a little time to cool down.
•
Revise and resubmit promptly.
•
Indicate what revisions were made.
–
Typically, include a letter noting the revisions made. If you received a
list of requested revisions, address each in the letter.
–
If requested, show revisions in Track Changes.
What Should You Do?
•
If you don’t understand a revision request, politely request
clarification.
•
If you disagree with a requested revision, politely explain why
in your letter. Try to find a different way to solve the problem
that the editor or reviewer identified.
•
Sometimes discussion by phone or video will follow.
Answering Queries
•
Queries: questions from the manuscript editor
•
Some topics of queries:
–
Inconsistencies
–
Missing information
–
Ambiguities
–
Edits potentially changing meaning
–
Other
•
Respond promptly, politely, and completely yet concisely
Reviewing Proofs
•
Proofs: typeset material to check.
•
Review the proofs promptly.
•
Some things to check:
–
Completeness (presence of all components)
–
Accuracy (absence of typos in text and references)
–
Placement of figures and tables
–
Quality of reproduction of figures
•
Note: This is not the time to rewrite the paper.
A Near-Final Step:
Celebrate Publication of Your Paper!
Potential Follow-Up:
Helping to Publicize Your Article
•
Informing colleagues, mentors, funders, and others
•
If appropriate:
–
Publicizing the article in social media
–
Posting the article on your website
–
Placing the article in an institutional repository
–
Informing public information professionals
at your institution
–
Being available for media interviews
–
Other
Thank You!
These slides cover topics on preparing, structuring, writing, editing, and publishing journal articles. It includes advice on deciding when to publish and identifying target journals.
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Presentation Transcript
AuthorAID Core Slides: Writing and Publishing Journal Articles These slides are adapted from some that Barbara Gastel (b-gastel@tamu.edu) used in teaching in 2022 and 2023. To keep the file size small, visuals have been largely omitted.
Main Topics Preparing to write a journal article Structure of journal articles Writing a scientific paper: section by section Editing your own work Publishing a paper
Deciding When (or What) to Publish Some factors to consider: quality of the work, extent of the work, interest to others Suggestions: Seek guidance from those in your field who are more experienced in publishing journal articles. Present your work orally first. Doing so can help in (1) deciding whether the work is publishable (2) shaping the paper
Identifying a Target Journal: Some Basics If possible, decide early (before drafting the paper). It s better not to write the paper and then look for a journal. Deciding early can help you target your paper better. Look for journals that have published work similar to yours. Consider journals that have published work you will cite. Consult the journal s website and instructions to authors.
Some Factors to Consider in Choosing a Target Journal Aims and scope of journal Audience Prestige Impact [to be discussed more later] Access (open access; general accessibility) Speed of acceptance and publication; availability of article-based (continuous) publication Quality of reproduction of figures Publication costs, if any Likelihood of acceptance
To Be Avoided: Predatory or Otherwise Questionable Journals Journals that obtain publication fees but are not valid peer-reviewed scholarly publications Some clues that a journal might be predatory (especially if several such items are present): Unrealistically broad scope Unrealistically short stated turnaround times Flashy but poorly crafted, ungrammatical websites Fake metrics Incomplete contact information Other See https://thinkchecksubmit.org/
Impact Impact Factor (from Journal Citation Reports Clarivate Analytics) Indicates how much, on average, articles in the journal are cited Does not say how much a given article will be cited Not valid for comparison from field to field Changes over time Other citation metrics Other impact for example, on practice, policy, teaching, and media coverage
Some Current Issues Whether to post articles in preprint servers before submitting them to journals Long tradition of doing so in physics and related fields Recently, a considerable increase in doing so in biological fields, especially in the wake of COVID-19 Current or proposed requirements by some funding sources that research they fund be openly accessible
Journals Instructions to Authors Usual locations: on the journal s website and in the journal A large collection of links to instructions to authors in the health sciences: http://mulford.utoledo.edu/instr/ General advice: Select your first-choice journal early, and obtain its instructions immediately
Using the Journals Instructions Read the instructions to authors before starting to prepare your paper. Consult the instructions while preparing your paper. Check the instructions again before submitting your paper.
Some Questions the Instructions May Answer What categories of article does the journal publish? What is the maximum length of articles? What is the maximum length of abstracts? What sections should the article include? What are the guidelines for each? Does the journal have a template for articles? If so, how can it be accessed? What guidelines should be followed regarding writing style?
Some Questions (cont.) How many figures and tables are allowed? What are the requirements for them? In what format should references appear? Does the journal post supplementary material online? If so, how should it be provided? In what electronic format should the paper be prepared? How should the paper be submitted?
Beyond the Instructions Be sure to look at some recent issues of the journal (and some recent papers in those issues). Doing so can help you gear your paper to the journal. Note: Recently, some journals have become more flexible about the specific format (reference style etc.) in which papers are initially submitted. However, if a paper is then accepted, the journal may require the authors to revise the formatting to suit its requirements.
Structure of Journal Articles Reporting Research One common structure: IMRAD Introduction: Methods: Results: (And) Discussion: What was the question? How did you try to answer it? What did you find? What does it mean? (Overall structure of content: like an hourglass broad, then narrow, then broad.)
Article Structures (cont.) Structures can differ among academic fields. Non-IMRAD structures in some journals: IRDAM IMRDRDRD . . . Essay format, with headings chosen by author Other
Note People read sections of journal articles in various orders. What order, or orders, do you usually follow? Papers should be written accordingly. Doing so entails ensuring that the article makes sense even if a reader does not begin at the beginning.
Writing a Scientific Paper: Section by Section
Recap: Overall Structure of a Paper Broad (context for the current research) Narrow (focusing on the current research) Broad again (putting the findings in context) Like an hourglass
Overall Structure (Title) (Authors) (Abstract) Introduction Methods Results Discussion (Acknowledgments) (References)
In what order do you like to write the parts of a scientific paper? Why?
One Common Order for Writing a Paper Methods Results Discussion Introduction Final version of abstract Final version of title The slides in this section will be largely in this order.
Authors (and Acknowledgments)
Authors Those with important intellectual contributions to the work A resource: http://www.icmje.org/recommendations/browse/roles- and-responsibilities/defining-the-role-of-authors-and- contributors.html Often listed largely from greatest contributions to least Head of research group often is listed last In some fields, listed alphabetically Useful to list one s name in a consistent way on every paper
ORCID: A Researcher Identification Number Stands for Open Researcher and Contributor ID ORCID provides a persistent digital identifier that distinguishes you from every other researcher ORCID identifiers can aid in tracking authors of papers, grants, etc. Many journals and funders now require use of ORCID IDs See http://orcid.org/
Corresponding Author The author who communicates with the journal and others Should be someone readily reachable during review and publication of the paper Views vary as to whether it is prestigious to have this role
Acknowledgments Often optional A place to thank people who helped with the work but did not make contributions qualifying for authorship Examples: people who provided advice on the research, shared equipment or materials, or gave feedback on a draft of the paper Permission should be obtained from people you wish to list Sometimes the place where sources of financial support are stated
Crediting AI If you use an artificial intelligence (AI) tool, such as ChatGPT, to help write your article, should you list it as an author? No, it doesn t meet the criteria for authorship. However, if you use AI in this way, your paper must say so and explain (in the methods section or elsewhere) how it was used. For more, see Authorship and AI tools | COPE: Committee on Publication Ethics.
Purposes of the Methods Section To allow others to replicate what you did In order to test it In order to do further research To allow others to evaluate what you did To determine whether the conclusions seem valid To determine whether the findings seem applicable to other situations (external validity)
Methods: Basic Information to Include In most cases, overview of study design Identification of (if applicable) Equipment, organisms, reagents, etc., used (and sources thereof; details to provide in that regard may vary) Approval of human or animal research by an appropriate committee Statistical methods Other Procedures
Methods (cont.) In some journals, may include subheads May include tables and figures (examples: flowcharts, maps, diagrams, tables of experimental conditions) Should be written in past tense Often, may include passive voice Helpful to use papers published in the same journal as models
Methods: An Issue How Much Detail to Provide About Well-known methods (can just mention and cite) Methods previously described but not well known (describe briefly and cite) Methods that you yourself devised (describe in detail, or perhaps publish a methods paper and cite it) (a principle here and elsewhere: serve the reader)
Functions of References To give credit to others for their work To add credibility to your work by showing that you used valid information sources To help show how your work is related to previous work To help readers find further information
References: Importance of Accuracy Studies show that many references are inaccurate. For references to fulfill their functions, they must be accurate. Therefore Make sure you accurately state what the cited material says. Make sure all information in the citation (for example, author list, article title, journal title, volume, year, pages) is accurate.
Another Reason Your References Should Be Accurate Often, authors whose work you cite will be your peer reviewers. Inaccurate references to their work will not impress them favorably.
Formats Various formats exist for citation in text for example: Accuracy of references is important (Day and Gastel, 2022). Accuracy of references is important.3 Various formats exist for items in reference lists for example: Pineda D. 2003. Communication of science in Colombia. Sci. Ed. 26:91- 92. Pineda D. Communication of science in Colombia. Sci Ed 2003;26:91-2. Be sure to use the format that your target journal requests.
Citation Management Software Examples: EndNote, RefWorks, Zotero, Mendeley, Papers, Qiqqa Allows you to keep a database of references In many cases, provides the citations and references in the proper format for your target journal A source of information: https://library.tamu.edu/research/citation_management.html
Placement of Citations Ambiguous: This compound has been found in humans, dogs, rabbits, and squirrels (Tuda and Gastel, 1997; Xie and Lozano, 2023; Flores, 2002). This compound has been found in humans, dogs, rabbits, and squirrels.1,4,7 Clear: This compound has been found in humans (Tuda and Gastel, 1997), dogs (Xie and Lozano, 2023), and rabbits and squirrels (Flores, 2002). This compound has been found in humans,1 dogs,4 rabbits,7 and squirrels.7
Other Advice on References If you haven t read an item, don t cite it. If an article isn t freely accessible online, you may well be able to obtain it in another way for example, through a library, through an author s or institution s website, or by contacting the author. Check each reference against the original source. Carefully follow the journal s instructions to authors. Remember that style manuals can be excellent resources in this regard. Consider using references published in the same journal as models. Don t waste lots of time formatting unusual types of references. A copyeditor at the journal can do final formatting.
The Results Section The core of the paper Should present results in a logical order Often includes tables, figures, or both Should summarize findings rather than providing data in great detail Typically, should present results but not comment on them (Some journals, however, combine the Results and the Discussion.)
Verb Tense for the Results Section: Past Tense Examples from Seven-Year Efficacy of RTS,S/AS01 Malaria Vaccine among Young African Children (published in the New England Journal of Medicine): Of the 447 children enrolled in the original trial, 312 completed all three extensions of follow-up . . . Efficacy was consistently lower in the cohort with high exposure to malaria parasites than in the cohort with low exposure (Table 2). All cases of severe malaria resolved without long-term sequelae.
Results Sections of Papers with Tables or Figures How much should the information in the text overlap that in the tables and figures? Not extensive overlap In general, text should present only the main points from the tables and figures Perhaps also include a few of the most important data Remember to mention each table or figure. Do so as soon as readers might want to see it.
Mentioning Tables and Figures: Some Writing Advice In citing tables and figures, generally emphasize the finding, not the table or figure. Usually not so good: Table 3 shows that researchers who took this course published twice as many papers per year. Usually better: Researchers who took this course published twice as many papers per year (Table 3).
Tables and Figures: Some Basics
Tables: A Few Suggestions Use tables only if text will not suffice. Design tables to be understandable without the text. Organize each table in a logical way. If a paper includes a series of tables, use the same format for each. Be sure to follow the instructions to authors.
Figures: A Few Suggestions Use figures (graphs, diagrams, maps, photographs, etc.) only if they will help convey your information. Avoid including too much information in one figure. Make sure that all lettering will be large enough once the figures are published. Follow the journal s instructions.
