Understanding Historians' Reading Strategies in Disciplinary Literacy
Exploring how historians read through strategies like sourcing, contextualization, corroboration, and frameworks of interpretation, connecting history and English in terms of narrative elements, imagination, and societal factors.
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Cynthia Shanahan University of Illinois at Chicago Teaching Disciplinary Literacy in English and History
Are there similarities between history and English? Texts can be somewhat chronological and narrative, with setting, characters, plot, etc. Both historians and literary writers have to use imagination, but this is much more the case in English Both historians and literary writers can use literary devices, but their use can be a problem in history. Human goals and motivations are important in both. Societal factors (class, religion) are in both, but more in the background in English.
How do historians read? Sourcing: Paying attention to who wrote the document, to whom, for what purpose, in what venue To help determine perspective
Sourcing I saw, oh I don t know him very well, but he [the author] is part of a right-wing group of southern conservatives who is a secessionist. I m not sure that the best model for thinking about Lincoln as a president is one that comes from a racist. So I have my critical eyes up a little bit, so it s a bit of a stretch to be friendly to, so I wanted to make sure to read it fairly.
How do historians read? Contextualization: paying attention to when it was written and what was happening at the time that might influence the message
Contextualization I d want to take up this book. It s a 1984 book, and in Lincoln scholarship, that s ages. There have been many books written since, and I would want to know how the arguments changed since 1984.
How do historians read? Corroboration: Seeing if evidence from various documents agree or conflict
Corroboration When you compare that with the Bradford piece, it s a very different impression.
How do historians read? Frameworks of interpretation: Societal structures: Political, social, religious, etc. Societal systems: Ex feudalism; colonialism Patterns: Ex periodization, immigration, individual vs. masses Schools of thought: idealism; determinism
How do historians read? Claims-Evidence about.... Causes and effects Motivations Goals Manner Successes and failures Significance
Cause-effect Because people had difficulty finding work during the depression, Roosevelt created a number of works programs. The legalized practice of enslaving blacks occurred in every colony. The economic realities of the southern colonies, however, perpetuated the institution, which was first legalized in Massachusetts in 1641.
motivations Out of the conversations grew Bunau-Varilla's conviction that if the Panamanians tried to declare their independence, the United State would use force.
How do historians read Historians interpret events from documents, artifacts, and writings of other historians. These source texts don t always agree...so History accounts are always contestable, and Even when historical accounts are narrative, historians read them as arguments interpretations of historians that must be supported by evidence.
History Texts Primary documents: artifacts, documents, recording, etc. from the time period Secondary sources: Interpretations of primary sources Tertiary sources: Interpretations of secondary sources (textbooks, compendiums)
Example Cuban Missile Crisis: Soviet s had missiles in Cuba pointed at U.S. (U.S. had for a long time had missiles in Turkey pointed at Russia). U.S. quarantined Cuba and demanded removal of missiles U.S. and Soviets on brink of nuclear war Soviet Dobrynin and R. Kennedy meet
Dobrynin report to Russian Foreign minister: If that (the missiles in Turkey) is the only obstacle to achieving the regulation I mentioned earlier, then the president doesn t see any insurmountable difficulties in resolving this issue, replied R. Kennedy. ... However, the president can t say anything public in this regard about Turkey, R. Kennedy said again.
R. Kennedy report to Dean Rusk, Secretary of State He then asked me about Khrushchev s other proposal dealing with the removal of missiles from Turkey. I replied that there could be no quid pro quo no deal of this kind could be made. This was a matter that had to be considered by NATO and that it was up to NATO to make the decision. I said it was completely impossible for NATO to take such a step under the present threatening position of the Soviet Union.... I repeated that there could be no deal of any kind and that any steps toward easing tensions in other parts of the world largely depended on the Soviet Union and Mr. Khrushchev taking action in Cuba and taking it immediately.
History Example: The Tonkin Gulf Incident
The Incident On August 2, three North Vietnamese PT boats allegedly shot at the U.S.S. Maddox while it was on patrol off the North Vietnamese coastline in the Gulf of Tonkin. Two days later, while the Maddox and a companion ship, the C. Turner Joy, were again on patrol, there were reports of another attack. President Johnson ordered a retaliatory strike and asked Congress to pass the Southeast Asia Resolution (also known as the Tonkin Gulf Resolution) to give him the authority to take all necessary steps, including armed force, to assist any member or protocol state of the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty requested assistance in defense of its freedom. This resolution was passed. Johnson used this approval to commit the U.S. to heavy involvement in the Vietnam War. Hawks (those who were supporters of the war) and Doves (those who were against the war) disagreed about what actually happened and about President Johnson s motivations in handling the incident. The disagreement still exists.
Dean Rusk: As I Saw It Dean Rusk was the Secretary of State during the Tonkin Gulf Incident. He was a Hawk who believed that a war with Vietnam could be won.
Philip Davidson: Secrets of Vietnam Davidson was a former CIA agent in Vietnam and a self- proclaimed military historian. His book on Vietnam was privately published. His case about the Tonkin Gulf rested on the text of an intercepted telegram.
Borkin, et al. A group of historians authored a college level textbook from which the excerpt came.
Gareth Power: The Tonkin Gulf Gareth Porter was a historian from City University of New York. His essay was printed on the op-ed page of the Washington Post. His previous works included an annotated 2 volume set of original documents about Vietnam. Porter is rebutted in a subsequent editorial written by a military historian at Berkeley.
Robert S. McNamara:In Retrospect Robert McNamara was Secretary of Defense during the Tonkin Gulf Incident. He left the Johnson administration after coming to believe that the Conflict was not winnable. He wrote this book 20 years later.
The positions: N. Vietnam The U.S. attacked provoked N. Vietnam President manipulated Congress Davidson Rusk Porter Berkin, et al. McNamara YES MAYBE NO NO NO NO NO MAYBE YES NO MAYBE NO NO YES NO
What happens when students read multiple texts? Texts as Truth Texts as Arguments Reflection about ambiguities Low level, general strategies Discipline specific strategies Single text comprehension cross-text comparisons More reasoned arguments (Hynd-Shanahan, Holschuh, & Hubbard 2005) Better essays (Manderino, 2007; Newman, 2008)
Change in belief about knowledge Colin: I guess it is a tough task for historians to do. I think historians, even though they try to be as neutral as possible, there s some bias that is there as a human being. I guess you could try, but it s hard. When historians research a topic, that topic interests historians to begin with, and that interest comes from their parents, maybe. They re unaware of it . Not even having good solid reason, you automatically have some stance. And I guess that influences partially what they research on and the stance they take. I don t think there s 100% neutrality. That s impossible.
Changes in Strategies Before Rereading and memorization of facts. Anna: I approached reading the world history text like any other text, read the pre-questions, read the sections, and put the books down. After Anna: I like the way I am thinking as I am reading. I m reading and analyzing all these things I ve read before and comparing them while I m reading. It s kind of weird, but it s cool. My brain is working overtime and extending its capabilities so that s good. I like things that really make you think, and this subject does just that. There is no real answer, so you have to analyze everything yourself and come up with your own conclusions.
Reflection about ambiguities Shelly: (I take into account) who they are and what role they had and who they know in Vietnam and if they had any involvement because one of them was involved, so you have to take that into consideration. I think experience gives you more of an edge about what s going on. You know it happened if you re there, but I don t know I don t know That gives you a first hand thing. I don t know . People who have involvement, they re going to make themselves or the people who are affiliated with them look, you know, not look as bad, so they re a little sketchy in terms of reading what they put down so, I don t know. Historians, they can have biases too.
Sourcing Sidney Poitier writes a biographical Time Magazine article (April 6, 2004) about Oprah Winfrey entitled Oprah Winfrey: Her influence has reached far and wide. Oprah.com presents Oprah s life through photos, videos, and important milestones. Bill Keller, internet evangelist, discusses his view that Oprah is the most dangerous women in the world on a Fox News interview.
Looking outside the text Contextualization--noting The time period and what was happening The purpose for which it was written Where it appeared the type of text (argument, narrative, etc.)
Contextualization Why we know Iraq is lying, by Condaleeza Rice, New York Times, January 3, 2003. Iraq Bush and Blair deny fixed Iraq reports, by Elisabeth Bumiller, New York Times, June 8, 2005. Iraq 2 Coming late to the table, by Op Ed Columnist Bob Herbert, New York Times, May 31, 2008 (about Scott McClellan s new book). Iraq 3
Inquiry Chart Q 1 Q 2 Q 3 Credible? Text 1 Text 2 Text 3 My Opinion
Inquiry Chart Is Oprah dangerous? Is Oprah self- serving? Is Oprah compassionate?Credible? No: [her accomplishments] speak to touching hearts, and leaving each one uplifted Text 1 Answer/ evidence Text 2 Answer/ evidence Yes: Oprah is a conduit to lead people to hell Text 3 Answer/ evidence My Opinion
History Events Chart TEXT WHO? WHAT? WHERE? WHEN? WHY? 1 Relation: 2 Relation: 3 Relation 4 Main point:
SOAPStone Speaker Occasion Audience Purpose Subject Tone
G-SPRITE Geographical Social Political Religious Technological Economic
How do English scholars read? Engage in close reading Read from a particular perspective - Poststructural Do a scholarly read (Read for emotional response)
Traditions of literary criticism Amount of focus on author and context of text Not important----------------------------------Very important Close Reading Scholarly Read Reader Response Post-Structural
What characterizes literary genres? Moral and philosophical content about the human experience with archetypal themes Coming of age Man against nature, etc. Expressed through psychological states, how political, economic, social realities are experienced by humans.
What characterizes literary genres? Appeal to emotions, identification with characters and situations; spiritual fulfillment. Aesthetic appreciation of the language and craft.
What characterizes literary genres? Imagery: description, metaphor, simile Figuration: Symbolism, Irony, Satire
The Great Gatsby: The Great Gatsby: We walked through a high hallway into a bright, rosy colored space, fragilely bound into the house by French windows at either end. The windows were ajar and gleaming white against the fresh grass outside that seemed to grow a little way into the house. A breeze blew through the room, blew curtains in at one end and out the other like pale flags, twisting them up toward the frosted wedding-cake of the ceiling, and then rippled over the wine-colored rug, making a shadow on it as wind does on the sea.
The Great Gatsby, cont. The only completely stationary object in the room was an enormous couch on which two young women were buoyed up as though upon an anchored balloon. They were both in white, and their dresses were rippling and fluttering as if they had just been blown back in after a short flight around the house. I must have stood for a few moments listening to the whip and snap of the curtains and the groan of a picture on the wall. Then there was a boom as Tom Buchanan shut the rear windows and the caught wind died out about the room, and the curtains and the rugs and the two young women ballooned slowly to the floor.
What characterizes literary genres? Rhetorical strategies and patterns: Parallelism, understatement, exaggeration, repetition, allusion
Stopping by the woods on a snowy evening Whose woods these are I think I know His house is in the village though; He will not see me stopping here To see his woods fill up with snow. My little horse must think it queer To stop without a farmhouse near Between the woods and frozen lake The darkest evening of the year
Stopping by Woods He gives his harness bells a shake To ask if there is some mistake The only sound s the sweep Of easy wind and downy flake: The woods are lovely, dark and deep, But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep.
What characterizes literary genres? Problems of point of view: Who is speaking? Are they reliable? What relation are they to the author? Omniscient narrator; unreliable narrator, multiple narrators. Who is the narrator in Stopping by woods?
