The Tragedy of Minamata: A History of Mercury Poisoning
MI
N
A
M
A
TA
DISASTER
O
u
tli
ne
•
•
•
T
h
e
H
i
s
t
o
r
y
(
1
9
0
8
-
1
9
5
5
)
1
9
5
6
-
1
9
5
9
–
Finding
the cause/Identification of
Mercury
1
9
5
9
–
Compensation/waste
water
treatment
•
“
T
e
n
y
e
a
r
s
o
f
S
i
l
e
n
c
e
”
–
–
Continued
pollution
Congenital
Minamata
Disease
•
•
M
e
r
c
u
r
y
P
o
i
s
o
n
i
n
g
a
n
d
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
R
e
s
p
o
n
s
e
M
e
a
s
u
r
e
s
a
g
a
i
n
s
t
M
i
n
a
m
a
t
a
P
o
l
l
u
t
i
o
n
–
–
–
The Water Pollution Control
Law
Restoration
of
the
Environment
Environmental Impact
on
Minamata Pollution
The
History(1908-1955)
The
History(1908-1955)
•
•
•
•
•
The
Chisso Corporation
opened a chemical
factory in Minamata
in
1908.
Minamata
is
a
city located
Kumamoto
prefecture,
Japan.
Chisso chemical
factory
initially
produced
fertilizers.
Following the
nationwide
expansion
of
Japan’s
chemical
industry, the
company branched out
into the
production
of
acetylene, acetaldehyde,
acetiv
acid,
vinyl
chloride and
octanol.
The
Minamata
factory
became
the
most
advanced
in
all
of
Japan.
The
History(1908-1955)
•
The
rapid
expansion
of
the
Minamata
factory
spurred on
the
local
economy.
•
Chisso
prosperred,
so
did
Minamata.
•
Chisso
had
great
influence on Minamata.
•
In
1932,
Chisso
Minamata
factory first
started
acetaldehyde
production.
–
Producing
210
tons per
year.
•
By
1951,
production
had
jumped
to
6000
tons
per
year.
–
Over
half
of
japan’s
total
output.
The
History(1908-1955)
•
•
•
•
•
The
chemical
reaction
used
to
produce
the
acetadehyde
used
mercury
sulphate
as
catalyst.
A
side
reaction
of the
catalytic
cycle led
to
the
production
of
methyl
mercury
.
Methyl
mercury
is
an
organic
mercury compound.
Methyl
mercury
is
a
highly
toxic
component.
Waste
water from
Chisso
factory
were
released
into
Minamata
Bay.
1956
-
1959
1956
-
1959
•
•
•
•
•
April
21, 1956, a
five
year old girl
was
examined at Chisso’s
factory
hospital
in
Minamata.
Physicians
were
puzzled
by
her
symptoms:
–
Difficulty
in
walking,
speaking
and
convulsions.
Few
days
later,
eight years
old
girl in
the
neighbourhood
was found
experiencing
the
similar
problrms.
On
May
1,
1956,
discovery
of an
“epidemic
of
unknown
disease
of
the
central
nervous
system
”
was
reported
to
the
local
public
health.
Patients
were
isolated
–
leading
to
stigmatization
and
discrimination.
1956
-
1959
•
Cats were also
seen
to
have convulsions,
go
mad
and
die.
•
•
•
•
•
•
–
This disease in
cats
were
commonly
called
as
dancing
cat
fever.
Crows
fell
from
the
sky.
Fishes
floated
dead
on
the
sea
shore.
The
Kumamoto University
Research Group
was
formed.
The
disease
developed
without
prior
warning.
Patients
lost
sensation,
and
complained
of
numbness
in
hands and
feet.
By
October,
1956,
40
patients
were
discovered(14
dead).
1956
-
1959
•
•
•
•
•
•
The
researchers
figured
the
following:
Staple
food
of the
victims
were
fish
and
shellfish
from Minamata
Bay.
Food
poisoning
by
heavy
metals.
Initially,
manganese
was
thought
to
be
the
cause substance.
British
neurologist Douglas
McAlpine
suggested
the Minamata
symptoms
resembled
to
those of
organic mercury.
Focus
of
investigation
shifted
and
centered
mercury.
1956
-
1959
•
•
•
In
February, 1959, mercury
distribution in
Minamata
Bay
was
investigated.
Large
quantities
of
mercury
detected
in
fishes
from the
bay.
The highest
concentration centered around
the factory wastewater
canal
in
Hyakken harbour.
1956
-
1959
•
•
•
Hair
samples of
victims
and
Minamata
residents
were
taken
for test.
The maximum
mercury
level
recorded
was
705
ppm.
This
compared to to an average
level of
4 ppm
for
non –
minamata
residents.
1
95
9
1959
•
•
•
•
Chisso
came
under
close
scrutiny.
In
order
to
deflect
criticism, wastewater route was
changed.
It
discharged
waste
water directly
into
Minamata
river.
Now
victims
began
to
appear
in
other fishing
villages
up
and
down
the
coast
of the
Shirauni
Sea.
1959
•
•
•
•
•
•
Chisso
did
not
co-operate
with
the
Kumamoto
Research
Team.
Withheld information
on
its
industrial
processes.
Chisso
factory’s
hospital director, Hajime
Hosokawa
carried out his
own
experiment
on
Minamata
disease.
He
confirmed that
it
was
organic
mercury
poisoning.
The
company did not
reveal the
result
to the investigators.
The
company
orederd
Hosokawa
to
stop
the
research.
1959
•
•
•
•
Compensation
for
fishermen
and
patients.
The
agreements
were
formulated
outside the
legal
system
by
ad-
hoc
mediation
committees.
Final agreements
were weighed in favor
of Chisso.
Punitive
clauses
in the
agreements
include:
“Representative groups of
fishermen
and
Minamata
disease
patients
could not
make
future
claims
for
compensation
against the
company”.
1959
WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
SYSTEM
•
•
•
•
•
•
On October, 21, Chisso
was
ordered
to switch
back
its wastewater
drainage to
Hyakken Harbour.
Installed
a
cyclator
purification
system
with
a
special
ceremony.
Chisso’s president
drank
a glass
of water
supposedly
treated to
demonstrate it
was
safe.
But
wastewater
from
acetaldehyde
plant still
contained
mercury.
Deception
that
company’s
wastewater
has
been
made
safe.
In
people’s,
the
issue
of
Minamata
disease
was
resolved…
1959
–
1969
Ten
years
of
silence
1959
-
1969
•
•
•
T
h
e
p
e
r
i
o
d
b
e
t
w
e
e
n
t
h
e
f
i
r
s
t
s
e
t
o
f
a
g
r
e
e
m
e
n
t
s
i
n
1
9
5
9
t
o
t
h
e
f
i
r
s
t
l
e
g
a
l
a
c
t
i
o
n
t
a
k
e
n
a
g
a
i
n
s
t
C
h
i
s
s
o
i
n
1
9
6
9
a
r
e
i
s
c
a
l
l
e
d
a
s
t
h
e
“
T
e
n
y
e
a
r
s
o
f
s
i
l
e
n
c
e
”
By
late
1960,
the
Kumamoto
and
Kagoshima
perfectural
government continued a joint survey
in the
hairs of
the people living
around
the
Shiranui
sea.
Results
showed that
organic mercury had spread all around
the
inland
sea.
1959
-
1969
C
O
N
T
I
N
U
E
D
P
O
L
L
U
T
I
O
N
•
•
•
•
•
Contaminated fish still
poisoned
people.
50 ppm
of
mercury
in people’s hair were
discovered.
Highest
recorded
level
was
920 ppm
The
perfectural
government
did
not
publish
the
results,
nor
did
anything
in
response
to
the
survey.
A
follow-up study ten
years
later
discovered
that many
had died
from
“unknown
causes”
1959
-
1969
C
O
N
G
E
N
I
T
A
L
M
I
N
A
M
A
T
A
D
I
S
E
A
S
E
•
•
•
•
•
Local
doctors
noticed
for
a
long
time
an abnormal high frequency
of
cerebral
palsy.
A
re-examination of children
diagnosed
with
cerebral
palsy
was
carried
out.
The
symptoms
of
the
children
closely
mirrored
those
of
adult
Minamata
disease
patients.
However,
many of
their mothers
did
not
exhibit
symptoms.
After
several years
of
study and
autopsy
of
two
children,
the
doctors
diagnosed an unrecognized
congenital
form of
Minamata
disease.
1959
-
1969
O
F
F
I
C
I
A
L
G
O
V
E
R
N
M
E
N
T
R
E
C
O
G
N
I
T
I
O
N
•
On
26 September
1968,
the
government
finally
issued an
official
conclusion
as
to
the
cause
of
Minamata
disease.
“
Mina
m
a
ta
d
is
e
a
s
e
is
a
d
is
e
a
s
e
o
f
tŁe
c
e
ntra
lne
rv
o
us
s
y
s
te
m
,
a
p
o
is
o
ning
c
a
us
e
d
by
lo
ng
-te
rm
c
o
nsum
p
tio
n,
in
la
rg
e
am
o
unts
,
o
f
fis
Ł
and
s
Łe
llfis
Ł
fro
m
Mina
m
a
ta
Ba
y
.
TŁe
c
a
us
a
tiv
e
a
g
e
nt
is
m
e
tŁy
lm
e
rc
ury
.
Me
tŁy
lm
e
rc
ury
p
ro
duce
d
in
tŁe
a
c
e
ta
ld
e
Łyde
a
c
e
tic
a
c
id
fa
c
ility
o
f
SŁin
NiŁo
n
CŁis
s
o
's
Mina
m
a
ta
fa
c
to
ry
was
d
is
c
Ła
rg
e
d
in
fa
c
to
ry
was
te
wa
te
r.
.
.
Mina
m
a
ta
d
is
e
a
s
e
p
a
tie
nts
la
s
t
a
p
p
e
a
re
d
in
1
9
6
0
,
a
nd
tŁe
o
utb
re
a
k
Łas
e
nde
d
.
TŁis
is
p
re
s
um
e
d
to
be
be
c
a
us
e
c
o
nsum
p
tio
n
o
f
fis
Ł
and
s
Łe
llfis
Ł
fro
m
Mina
m
a
ta
Ba
y
was
banne
d
in
tŁe
fa
ll
o
f
1
9
5
7
,
a
nd
tŁe
fa
c
t
tŁa
t
tŁe
fa
c
to
ry
Ład
was
te
-tre
a
tm
e
nt
fa
c
ilitie
s
in
p
la
c
e
fro
m
Ja
nua
ry
1
9
6
0
.
"
Mercury
poisoning
Mercury
poisoning
•
•
Methyl
mercury compound, a inorganic compound
which
is highly
toxic.
It
is
a
bi-product
during
the
production
of
mercury
sulphate.
Mercury
cycle
Mercury
poisoning
Methylmercury is
absorbed 100%
into the system
through
the
intestines with
oral
intake.
Mercury
poisoning
S
Y
M
P
T
O
M
S
O
F
M
I
N
A
M
A
T
A
D
I
S
E
A
S
E
G
E
N
E
R
A
L
•
•
•
Muscle
weakness
Damage
to
hearing,
vision
and
speech
Crippling
hands
and
feet
E
X
T
R
E
M
E
C
A
S
E
S
•
•
•
P
a
r
a
l
y
s
is
Coma
Death
Measures against
Minamata
pollution
Measures
against Minamata
Pollution
•
•
Temporal
variations
in
acetaldehyde
production.
Final
shut
down
of
pollutant
sources, by
total circulation
system
adopted in
1966.
Measures
against Minamata
Pollution
E
f
f
l
u
e
n
t
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
•
•
•
•
Drainage
of
the
Chisso’s
factory
effluent (containing
methylmercury)
to
Minamata
Bay
got
regulated.
In
1970,
“Water
Pollution
Control
Law”
was
enacted.
The
law
enforced
control
of
discharge of
effluent in all water
areas in
Japan,
in
relation
to
toxic
substances.
Conversion
of
production
method
was
advised
against
caustic
soda
plants
that
might
discharge mercury.
Measures
against Minamata
Pollution
T
h
e
W
a
t
e
r
P
o
l
l
u
t
i
o
n
C
o
n
t
r
o
l
L
a
w
The objective of
the
law
is
to:
•
•
•
•
Prevent
pollution of
water
in
the
public
water
areas.
Regulate
effluent
discharge
by
factories
into
public
water
areas.
Protect
human
health
and
preserve
the
living
environment.
Protect
sufferers,
by
incorporating
provisions
for
compensation
for
damages.
Measures
against Minamata
Pollution
R
e
s
t
o
r
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
t
h
e
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
•
•
•
Bottom
Sludge
treatment
program.
Reclamation
and dredging.
Mercury
concentration
reduced
to
4.69
ppm.
Summary
S
u
mm
a
r
y
R
o
o
t
c
a
u
s
e
A
s
s
e
s
s
m
e
n
t
o
f
M
i
n
a
m
a
t
a
P
o
l
l
u
t
i
o
n
•
•
•
•
Indiscriminate
dumping
of
wastewater.
Absence of
wastewater treatment facility.
Economic
clout
of
Chisso
Corporation.
Government
apathy
about
the severity
of
the
disease.
S
u
mm
a
r
y
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
a
l
I
m
p
a
c
t
o
f
M
i
n
a
m
a
t
a
P
o
l
l
u
t
i
o
n
•
•
•
Huge
quantities
of
Mercury detected
in fish and shellfish
in
Minamata
Bay.
Ecology
of the
Minamata
Bay
was
severely
affected.
Dredging and
reclamation
done to remove
toxic
sludge
from the
Minamata
Bay.
S
u
mm
a
r
y
E
c
o
n
o
m
i
c
I
m
p
a
c
t
o
f
M
i
n
a
m
a
t
a
P
o
l
l
u
t
i
o
n
•
•
•
Drastic
drop
in
fishing
sales,
causing loss
of
livelihood.
Joblessness leading
to
high
poverty
rate.
Compensation
leaves
Chisso
Corporation
in
huge
debt.
S
u
mm
a
r
y
S
o
c
i
a
l
I
m
p
a
c
t
o
f
M
i
n
a
m
a
t
a
p
o
l
l
u
t
i
o
n
•
•
•
•
Stigmatization
and
discrimination
against
patients.
Negative image
– “The
city
of
Pollution”
Riot
and
social
unrest.
Social
awareness
about
the
disease.
Minamata
Photo
Gallery
In
Japanese,
“Chisso”
means nitrogen.
Pouring
its
wastes
into the air
as
well
as
waters,
the
Chisso
chemical complex dominates the
city
of
Minamata.
Waste
chemicals
dumped into the
bay,
worked
their
way
up
the
food
chain to the
people
of the city
and
caused
the
Minamata
Disease.
Here,
fishing
on
the
bay
of
Minamata.
This
scene
has
changed
very
little
over
the
centuries.
However,
the
pollution
has
changed
the
relationship
that
the
people
of
Minamata
had
with
the
sea
and
fishes.
Chisso’s
president
Shimada,
performed
Japanese
ritual of shame
and apology
by touching
his
forehead
on
the
ground.
Signing
of
agreement
between
Patients’
association
and
Chisso
People
demonstrate
with
photos
of
the
dead
on
the
last
day
of
the
trial
in October of
1972
References
•
•
•
•
Fumikazu
Yoshida
(2006)
“Environmental
restoration
of
Minamata:
New
thinking
brings new advances”.
Integrated
research system
for
Sustainability
Science and Springer,
2:85
– 93.
Ministry of the Environment,
Government of Japan
http://www.env.go.jp/en/
SOSHISHA,
The
Supporting
Centre
For Minamata
Disease
http://soshisha.org/english/index_e.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamata_disease
The Minamata Disaster was a tragic event in Japan's history, stemming from mercury poisoning caused by industrial waste disposal. The Chisso Corporation's chemical factory in Minamata released methyl mercury into Minamata Bay, leading to widespread poisoning in humans and animals. The identification of mercury as the root cause, the ensuing compensation battles, the emergence of congenital Minamata Disease, and the long-lasting environmental impact are all key elements of this devastating event.
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Presentation Transcript
MINAMATA DISASTER
Outline The History(1908-1955) 1956-1959 Finding the cause/Identification of Mercury 1959 Compensation/waste water treatment Ten years of Silence Congenital Minamata Disease Mercury Poisoning and Control Response Measures against Minamata Pollution Environmental Impact on Minamata Pollution Continued pollution The Water Pollution Control Law Restoration of the Environment
The History(1908-1955) The Chisso Corporation opened a chemical factory in Minamata in 1908. Minamata is a city located Kumamoto prefecture, Japan. Chisso chemical factory initially produced fertilizers. Following the nationwide expansion of Japan s chemical industry, the company branched out into the production of acetylene, acetaldehyde, acetiv acid, vinyl chloride and octanol. The Minamata factory became the most advanced in all of Japan.
The History(1908-1955) The rapid expansion of the Minamata factory spurred on the local economy. Chisso prosperred, so did Minamata. Chisso had great influence on Minamata. In 1932, Chisso Minamata factory first started acetaldehyde production. Producing 210 tons per year. By 1951, production had jumped to 6000 tons per year. Over half of japan s total output.
The History(1908-1955) The chemical reaction used to produce the acetadehyde used mercury sulphate as catalyst. A side reaction of the catalytic cycle led to the production of methyl mercury. Methyl mercury is an organic mercury compound. Methyl mercury is a highly toxic component. Waste water from Chisso factory were released into Minamata Bay.
1956 - 1959 April 21, 1956, a five year old girl was examined at Chisso s factory hospital in Minamata. Physicians were puzzled by her symptoms: Difficulty in walking, speaking and convulsions. Few days later, eight years old girl in the neighbourhood was found experiencing the similar problrms. On May 1, 1956, discovery of an epidemic of unknown disease of the central nervous system was reported to the local public health. Patients were isolated leading to stigmatization and discrimination.
1956 - 1959 Cats were also seen to have convulsions, go mad and die. This disease in cats were commonly called as dancing cat fever. Crows fell from the sky. Fishes floated dead on the sea shore. The Kumamoto University Research Group was formed. The disease developed without prior warning. Patients lost sensation, and complained of numbness in hands and feet. By October, 1956, 40 patients were discovered(14 dead).
1956 - 1959 The researchers figured the following: Staple food of the victims were fish and shellfish from Minamata Bay. Food poisoning by heavy metals. Initially, manganese was thought to be the cause substance. British neurologist Douglas McAlpine suggested the Minamata symptoms resembled to those of organic mercury. Focus of investigation shifted and centered mercury.
1956 - 1959 In February, 1959, mercury distribution in Minamata Bay was investigated. Large quantities of mercury detected in fishes from the bay. The highest concentration centered around the factory wastewater canal in Hyakken harbour.
1956 - 1959 Hair samples of victims and Minamata residents were taken for test. The maximum mercury level recorded was 705 ppm. This compared to to an average level of 4 ppm for non minamata residents.
1959 Chisso came under close scrutiny. In order to deflect criticism, wastewater route was changed. It discharged waste water directly into Minamata river. Now victims began to appear in other fishing villages up and down the coast of the Shirauni Sea.
1959 Chisso did not co-operate with the Kumamoto Research Team. Withheld information on its industrial processes. Chisso factory s hospital director, Hajime Hosokawa carried out his own experiment on Minamata disease. He confirmed that it was organic mercury poisoning. The company did not reveal the result to the investigators. The company orederd Hosokawa to stop the research.
1959 Compensation for fishermen and patients. The agreements were formulated outside the legal system by ad- hoc mediation committees. Final agreements were weighed in favor of Chisso. Punitive clauses in the agreements include: Representative groups of fishermen and Minamata disease patients could not make future claims for compensation against the company .
1959 WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEM On October, 21, Chisso was ordered to switch back its wastewater drainage to Hyakken Harbour. Installed a cyclator purification system with a special ceremony. Chisso s president drank a glass of water supposedly treated to demonstrate it was safe. But wastewater from acetaldehyde plant still contained mercury. Deception that company s wastewater has been made safe. In people s, the issue of Minamata disease was resolved
19591969 Tenyearsofsilence
1959 - 1969 The period between the first set of agreements in 1959 to the first legal action taken against Chisso in 1969 are is called as the Ten years of silence By late 1960, the Kumamoto and Kagoshima perfectural government continued a joint survey in the hairs of the people living around the Shiranui sea. Results showed that organic mercury had spread all around the inland sea.
1959 - 1969 CONTINUED POLLUTION Contaminated fish still poisoned people. 50 ppm of mercury in people s hair were discovered. Highest recorded level was 920 ppm The perfectural government did not publish the results, nor did anything in response to the survey. A follow-up study ten years later discovered that many had died from unknown causes
1959 - 1969 CONGENITAL MINAMATA DISEASE Local doctors noticed for a long time an abnormal high frequency of cerebral palsy. A re-examination of children diagnosed with cerebral palsy was carried out. The symptoms of the children closely mirrored those of adult Minamata disease patients. However, many of their mothers did not exhibit symptoms. After several years of study and autopsy of two children, the doctors diagnosed an unrecognized congenital form of Minamata disease.
1959 - 1969 OFFICIAL GOVERNMENT RECOGNITION On 26 September 1968, the government finally issued an official conclusion as to the cause of Minamata disease. Minamata disease is a disease of t e centralne rvous system, a poisoning caused by long-term consum ption, in large amounts, of fis and s ellfis from MinamataBay.T e causativeagent ismet ylmercury. Met ylm ercury produce d in t e acetalde yde acetic acid facility of S in Ni on C isso's Minamata factory was disc arged in factory wastewater ... Minamata disease patients last appeared in 1960, and t e outbreak as ende d .T is isp re s um ed to be be c a us ec onsum p tio n of fis and s e llfis fro m Mina m a ta Ba y was banne d in t e fa ll of 19 5 7, a nd t e fa c t t a t t e factory ad waste-tre atment facilities in placefrom January1 960."
Mercury poisoning Methyl mercury compound, a inorganic compound which is highly toxic. It is a bi-product during the production of mercury sulphate.
Mercury poisoning Methylmercury is absorbed 100% into the system through the intestines with oral intake.
Mercury poisoning SYMPTOMS OF MINAMATA DISEASE GENERAL Crippling hands and feet Muscle weakness Damage to hearing, vision and speech EXTREME CASES Death Paralysis Coma
Measures against Minamata pollution
Measures against Minamata Pollution Temporal variations in acetaldehyde production. Final shut down of pollutant sources, by total circulation system adopted in 1966.
Measures against Minamata Pollution Effluent Control Drainage of the Chisso s factory effluent (containing methylmercury) to Minamata Bay got regulated. In 1970, Water Pollution Control Law was enacted. The law enforced control of discharge of effluent in all water areas in Japan, in relation to toxic substances. Conversion of production method was advised against caustic soda plants that might discharge mercury.
Measures against Minamata Pollution The Water Pollution Control Law The objective of the law is to: Prevent pollution of water in the public water areas. Regulate effluent discharge by factories into public water areas. Protect human health and preserve the living environment. Protect sufferers, by incorporating provisions for compensation for damages.
Measures against Minamata Pollution Restoration of the Environment Bottom Sludge treatment program. Reclamation and dredging. Mercury concentration reduced to 4.69 ppm.
Summary Root cause Assessment of Minamata Pollution Indiscriminate dumping of wastewater. Absence of wastewater treatment facility. Economic clout of Chisso Corporation. Government apathy about the severity of the disease.
Summary Environmental Impact of Minamata Pollution Huge quantities of Mercury detected in fish and shellfish in Minamata Bay. Ecology of the Minamata Bay was severely affected. Dredging and reclamation done to remove toxic sludge from the Minamata Bay.
Summary Economic Impact of Minamata Pollution Drastic drop in fishing sales, causing loss of livelihood. Joblessness leading to high poverty rate. Compensation leaves Chisso Corporation in huge debt.
Summary Social Impact of Minamata pollution Stigmatization and discrimination against patients. Negative image The city of Pollution Riot and social unrest. Social awareness about the disease.
Minamata Photo Gallery
In Japanese, Chisso means nitrogen. Pouring its wastes into the air as well as waters, the Chisso chemical complex dominates the city of Minamata.
Waste chemicals dumped into the bay, worked their way up the food chain to the people of the city and caused the Minamata Disease.
Here, fishing on the bay of Minamata. This scene has changed very little over the centuries. However, the pollution has changed the relationship that the people of Minamata had with the sea and fishes.
Chissos president Shimada, performed Japanese ritual of shame and apology by touching his forehead on the ground.
Signing of agreement between Patients association and Chisso
People demonstrate with photos of the dead on the last day of the trial in October of 1972
References Fumikazu Yoshida (2006) Environmental restoration of Minamata: New thinking brings new advances . Integrated research system for Sustainability Science and Springer, 2:85 93. Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan http://www.env.go.jp/en/ SOSHISHA, The Supporting Centre For Minamata Disease http://soshisha.org/english/index_e.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minamata_disease
