The Multilingual Turn in Sociolinguistics: Implications for Educators

 
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Fiona Willans
 
Outline
 
Vanuatu – a context for multilingual education
 
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My own experiences trying to work with these new
frames of reference,
when analysing my data from two school communities in
Vanuatu
when sharing findings with teachers from my study
when talking to policymakers (Ministry of Education,
Teachers College, Curriculum Unit) about my research
 
Vanuatu as a linguistically diverse
context: Implications for education
 
 
Languages:
 
100+ Austronesian languages
 
Bislama (National variety of the
English-based Melanesian Pidgin)
 
English
French
 
 
(Population: 240,000)
 
(former colonial languages)
1906 - 1980
Colonial LPP as
competition
1906 - 1980
Colonial LPP as
competition
1980
Post-colonial LPP
as compromise
A dual submersion model
 
English-
medium
 
French-
medium
1906 - 1980
Colonial LPP as
competition
1980
Post-colonial LPP
as compromise
A dual submersion model
A double-transitional model
2010 National LPP as one attempt at
another compromise (since abandoned)
Vernaculars
French
English
(Bislama)
 
1
 
English-
medium
 
French-
medium
1906 - 1980
Colonial LPP as
competition
1980
Post-colonial LPP
as compromise
A dual submersion model
A double-transitional model
2010 National LPP as one attempt at
another compromise (since abandoned)
Vernaculars
French
English
(Bislama)
 
1
 
English-
medium
 
French-
medium
2012 The latest …
 
Vernacular (including Bislama)
 
+ French
as a
foreign
language
 
+ English
as a
foreign
language
 
How languages are conceptualised
within these policy debates
 
Each language allotted its own space on the timetable
 
One language at a time
 
Languages compared in terms of their suitability for
education
 
Some languages suppressed to make room for others
 
“Multiple monolingualisms”
 (Heugh, 2003; Banda, 2009),
rather than 
multilingualism
 
The ‘multilingual turn’ in
Sociolinguistics
 
Ongoing revision of fundamental ideas about
(a)
Language(s)
(b)
Language groups and speakers
(c)
Multilingualism
 
“Rather than working with homogeneity, stability and
boundedness as the starting assumptions, mobility,
mixing, political dynamics and historical embedding
are now central concerns” (Blommaert & Rampton
(2012, pp.9-10)
 
What has changed?
 
1.
the nature of linguistic diversity, due to
globalization, changing patterns of migration, and
different media and technologies of communication
AND
 
2.
the realisation that categories such as ‘language’,
‘multilingualism’, and so on have never adequately
captured the complex reality of language use
 
(HOW MUCH OF THIS IS REALLY NEWS TO
SPEAKERS OF PACIFIC LANGUAGES?)
 
The deployment of 
linguistic
 
features
,
rather than 
languages
 
“‘Languages’ are abstractions, they are sociocultural or
ideological constructions which match real-life use of
language poorly. This means that sociolinguistics – the
study of language as a social phenomenon - must work
at another level of analysis with real-life language use.
… We use the level of (linguistic) features as the basis
for understanding language use, and we claim that
features are socioculturally associated with ‘languages’”.
(Jørgensen, et al 2011, p.23)
 
A more flexible multilingualism,
characterised by:
 
a focus on fluidity and flexibility,
 
the prioritisation of language 
use
 rather than of
abstract, idealised language models,
 
and the understanding that we draw on
whatever linguistic (and non-linguistic) resources
are available to us, regardless of which
‘language’ they are traditionally associated with.
 
Key question
 
Can rethinking ‘multilingualism’ as the
flexible use of multiple linguistic resources
help me:
a)
analyse my data with relevant
implications for education policy?
b)
discuss my findings with teachers from
the study?
c)
discuss my findings with ‘official’
policymakers?
 
F: Bongarea tufala
R: Nah mas talem 
bon nuit 
nomo nao.
French gal!
S: Awo, mi jalus long yu yu save Franis.
F: Honest. Yu jalus blong smol Franis nomo.
Lukaot i no naf!
S: Nah be yu save Franis. Yu intres long
hem. Yu fit.
 
‘Good night’ (North-East Ambae)
 
‘Good night’ (French)
No but you know French.
You’re interested in it.
A brief example of how
this ‘rethinking’ helped
me analyse my data
 
A summary of conclusions from the study
 
T
h
e
 
o
f
f
i
c
i
a
l
 
l
i
n
e
:
English and French are valued equally, and there is no
way that one will be dropped; All other languages (but
particularly Bislama) are considered unsuitable for
education, even though their utility is often
acknowledged in this context
U
n
o
f
f
i
c
i
a
l
l
y
:
Knowing a language does not mean knowing 
all of 
a
language (minimal ‘displays’ are sometimes enough);
There is space for the resources of multiple languages to
be used together, even in the classroom, if the focus can
be shifted to 
learning
, rather than 
language competence
;
Using multiple linguistic resources in school does not
prevent the effective teaching of English/French.
 
T: 
The first style that Hau’ofa uses is oral story telling. And oral story telling
hem i sem mak nomo olsem yumi wanem yumi kolem
 
kastom stori
.
S: 
Dukuni
T: 
Dukuni. Dukuni 
long lanwis blong yumi
. 
Dukuni. Dukuni tavohi dave dam
vano dam togarorongo, tomue morovo serigihi vataha revirevi dam vano dave
da maturu rave ram veve na dukuni. 
Dukuni hi a 
style
 
hi Hau’ofa mo 
yusum?
 
I
sem mak nomo olsem stael we yumi stap yusum long
=
S: = 
Stori
T: 
Stori blong yumi
. 
Ale
 ahm 
dukuni ngerehi ram tangaloi ram veve ram 
stori
oli stori 
out loud
 
olsem ale yumi, o yumi olsem ol man we yumi stap long
lesen nao ol 
audiences
. 
Be Hau’ofa hem i
. 
Uses.
 
Hem i yusum 
same particular
style.
S: Ah 
audience
 
ngwere tangaloi ram toka ram rorotagi?
=
T: =
Ram rorotagi 
ale
 Hau’ofa nge mo
. 
Oli kolem 
oral story telling 
from se
Hau’ofa i yusum stael ia olsem
 
oral story telling 
ia nao. Hem i 
oral
 
oli olsem
talem 
out loud
. 
Okay
 stori ia hem i olsem se
 
particular style 
we Hau’ofa i
yusum ia? 
It’s just as if 
hem i stap talemaot stori
 
out loud to
=
S: =
Evriwan
T: 
Yes to one audience 
olsem
What did the teacher herself say about
this extract?
 
“This was outside class so it was okay. If I explained in
English outside class, it would be odd. She’s from my
village.”
 
“If I use too much Bislama or 
Lanwis
 in the classroom,
they’ll become competent in the wrong language – a
problem in the exams.”
 
“It’s very unusual to use my language, Bislama and
English at the same time like this. I normally use one at a
time.”
 
The blozz plimped haggily to the
wembong
 
How little language we need in order to
survive
 in the L2 medium classroom.
How much we need in order to 
succeed
.
 
(Attempt 2: Discussion group, August 2014,
with teachers who had participated in my 2011 research)
 
Showing that L2-only doesn’t necessarily require much L2
 
Phloem cells are living cells
 
T: Phloem cells are?
Ss: Living cells
T: They are not?
Ss: Lignified
 
It seems that students understand. Until we see
their notes:
“Phloem cells are living cells. Phloem has
cellulose (not lignified) cell walls.”
They can provide the answers from their notes,
but we don’t know whether they really
understand.
 
T: What can you see in the three pictures?
S1: 
Old people
S2: 
Small children
S3: 
People working
T: 
How do these pictures relate to our topic?
(SILENCE)
T: What is our topic?
Ss: 
Dependency ratios
T: Do these pictures show something about dependency ratios?
Ss: 
Yes
T: 
What do they show us?
(SILENCE)
T: Which people are dependent on others?
Ss: 
Old people and children
T: Who provides for them?
 
Who does most of the talking? What happens
when the students don’t give an answer?
 
What happens in the exam?
 
Q: What is the function of
the part marked on the
diagram?
 
A: 
“When you are not agree
with that something that
you are doing you may move
a mouse to it and it may
come to empty space again”
 
The student understands the
concept perfectly.
 
But the student struggles to
explain the concept in
English and the answer is
marked incorrect.
 
Does this help?
 
Using classroom data helps show that ‘L2
only’ does not necessarily mean much L2
is actually used (particularly by the
students);
So it enables teachers to rethink some of
the assumptions underlying school rules
and teacher training;
However, it doesn’t get us past the 
“but
they 
should
 be better at L2” 
argument.
Attempt 3: Presentation at
Vanuatu Ministry of Education,
August 2014 (Attendees from
the Ministry, the Teachers
College and the Curriculum
Development Unit)
Attempting to tackle each
of the deep-rooted L2-only
arguments in turn
 
Feedback from the presentation
 
Individual counter-arguments all accepted,
e.g. relief from teacher trainers that it’s
okay to do what they’re doing anyway
(advising teachers to use L1 alongside L2)
even 100% agreement that Bislama is
suitable for education (including from one
participant who had argued vehemently
against it in an interview)
BUT
 each counter-argument was quickly
rebutted by one of the other arguments
10 myths
closing
down space
for
multilingual
education
    “Learning in one
     language is
most
 logical and
efficient”
“Any language can
    be mastered and
             then used as
                       LOLT”
“English &
French bring
automatic
opportunities
(both = best)”
“The 106
vernaculars &
Bislama have
no value”
    
“Pidgins such as
   Bislama are
linguistically inferior”
“Corpus planning
  is impossible in so
     many languages”
 
“Materials
  are too costly
and complex
to  produce”
              
“Classroom
       management is
    impossible with
multiple languages”
“Time spent on
   vernaculars/Bislama
      could be better spent
               on
English/French”
“Assessment
               is
impractical
             in multiple
       languages”
 
But
 multilingualism works JUST FINE
in ‘non-school learning events’ – What’s
the difference?
 People seem to want English AND
French – Clearly more than one
language IS okay.
 We have empirical evidence that
schools are far from monolingual – it’s
not a local PROBLEM but a wider
institutional REALITY
 
But
 how much knowledge can
students demonstrate in L2? What
are tests testing?
 There are viable alternatives for
internal assessment in particular –
pragmatic solutions that depend on
resources
 Even where tests remain
monolingual, they can be prepared
for multilingually
 
But
 classrooms will not be as
chaotic as imagined – Many
languages are SHARED
 TEACHER TRAINING needs
to provide teachers with
techniques that will help them
stay in control
 And profiting from students’
lack of expertise in the LOLT as
a way of retaining teacher
control can’t be right! Students
need to be able to ENGAGE
with their learning
 
But
 there are currently
very few books in ANY
language!
 Books that do exist are
inadequate for L2 learners
– the money could be
BETTER spent
 Evidence from PNG
shows that materials CAN
be developed in a large
number of languages
 
But
 these languages are already
used to discuss complex topics
outside school –   Corpus planning
responds to NEED
 Invert the problem:  Can
SPEAKERS access sufficient
linguistic resources for their
PURPOSES? (rather than asking
whether a language is sufficiently
capable)
 
But
 CONTENT and
LANGUAGE teaching are
totally different
With APPROPRIATE
language teaching, English
and French can still be
learnt to a high standard
 
But
 Bislama is an official
language, the language of
parliament, etc.
 Interviews enabled
participants to express some
complex negative views
ABOUT Bislama, IN Bislama!
 And why is Bislama
described as unstable, when
English and French are
described as ALIVE and
constantly DEVELOPING?
 
But
 outside school, these
languages are used in politics,
non-formal education,
business, etc. etc.
 Inside school, these
languages have enormous
instrumental potential to help
children UNDERSTAND and
PARTICIPATE
 
But
 prioritising English/French over
the LEARNING OF CONTENT will
not bring any opportunities for
individuals or society
 Statistics show that ONLY 14% of
jobs ask for English and French
(20% require English; 0.7% French)
 
But
 international evidence
shows that this simply doesn’t
happen without EXPLICIT FL
teaching
 Vanuatu data shows low
levels of L2 – CHANGE is
needed
 Classroom data shows that
teachers do all the language
work: Students have no
INCENTIVE
to master the LOLT
Opening up space
for multilingual
education in
Vanuatu:
Challenging the
web of myths
Fiona Willans
King’s College
London
(ESRC funded:
ES/H016775/1)
How do we
challenge
this?
How do we
challenge
this?
How
do we
challenge
this?
How
do we
challenge
this?
How
do we
challenge
this?
6.
7.
8.
9.
5.
4.
3.
2.
1.
10.
How
do we
challenge
this?
How
do we
challenge
this?
How do we
challenge
this?
How do
we
challenge
this?
How
do we
challenge
this?
Attempt 4:
Recognising the
complexity and the
interconnectedness
of the whole, rather
than individual
arguments
“Sasaha e vaha bulu na lao”
(Tolo, Guadalcanal)
Knowledge is like a cobweb. It only
becomes knowledge through the
connections.
 
Summary
 
I found that too much ‘rethinking’ can seem off-putting,
but that people can be persuaded to ‘rethink’ practice if
they have the opportunity to judge for themselves
whether arguments are validated by their own data;
Providing concrete 
counter-
arguments seemed the best
way to dislodge stubborn arguments;
Keeping the ‘complex whole’ in focus is important, even
while working on just one part of the whole;
Evidence of what would work instead is obviously
crucial, as well as challenging the status quo;
If enough of this ‘rethinking’ can be done through a
sideways approach (government-level, teacher training,
in communities …), change might become possible.
 
 
Tangkiu tumas
Vinaka vakalevu
Mahalo
 
All presentation materials are available at 
www.fionawillans.wordpress.com
 
References from the talk
Banda, Felix. (2009). Critical perspectives on language planning and policy in Africa: Accounting
for the notion of multilingualism. 
Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics PLUS, 38
, 1-11.
Blommaert, Jan, & Rampton, Ben. (2011). Language and superdiversity: A position paper.
Working Papers in Urban Language & Literacies, 70
.
Heugh, K. (2003). 
Language policy and democracy in South Africa: The prospects of equality
within rights-based policy and planning.
 (PhD), Stockholm University.
Jørgensen, N., Karrebæk, M., Madsen, L., & Møller, J. (2011). Polylanguaging in superdiversity.
Diversities, 13
(2).
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Exploring the multilingual context in Vanuatu, this article delves into the historical evolution of language policies and their impact on education. It discusses the diverse language landscape in Vanuatu, the challenges faced by educators, and the shifting paradigms in language instruction over time.

  • Sociolinguistics
  • Multilingual Education
  • Language Policies
  • Educators
  • Language Diversity

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  1. The multilingual turn in Sociolinguistics: What use is it to educators? Fiona Willans fiona.willans@usp.ac.fj

  2. Outline Vanuatu a context for multilingual education A quick sketch of the multilingual turn in Sociolinguistics and what this could mean for educators My own experiences trying to work with these new frames of reference, when analysing my data from two school communities in Vanuatu when sharing findings with teachers from my study when talking to policymakers (Ministry of Education, Teachers College, Curriculum Unit) about my research

  3. Vanuatu as a linguistically diverse context: Implications for education Languages: (Population: 240,000) 100+ Austronesian languages Bislama (National variety of the English-based Melanesian Pidgin) English French (former colonial languages)

  4. 1906 - 1980 Colonial LPP as competition

  5. 1906 - 1980 Colonial LPP as competition 1980 Post-colonial LPP as compromise English- medium French- medium A dual submersion model

  6. 1906 - 1980 Colonial LPP as competition 1980 Post-colonial LPP as compromise English- medium French- medium A dual submersion model 2010 National LPP as one attempt at another compromise (since abandoned) K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Vernaculars French English (Bislama) 1 A double-transitional model

  7. 1906 - 1980 Colonial LPP as competition 1980 Post-colonial LPP as compromise English- medium French- medium A dual submersion model 2010 National LPP as one attempt at another compromise (since abandoned) 2012 The latest ANGLOPHONE STREAM FRANCOPHONE STREAM K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Vernaculars Year 1 Vernacular (including Bislama) Year 2 Year 3 French Year 4 Year 5 English medium French medium Year 6 Year 7 English (Bislama) + French as a foreign language + English as a foreign language Year 8 1 Year 9 A double-transitional model Year 10

  8. How languages are conceptualised within these policy debates Each language allotted its own space on the timetable One language at a time Languages compared in terms of their suitability for education Some languages suppressed to make room for others Multiple monolingualisms (Heugh, 2003; Banda, 2009), rather than multilingualism

  9. The multilingual turn in Sociolinguistics Ongoing revision of fundamental ideas about (a) Language(s) (b) Language groups and speakers (c) Multilingualism Rather than working with homogeneity, stability and boundedness as the starting assumptions, mobility, mixing, political dynamics and historical embedding are now central concerns (Blommaert & Rampton (2012, pp.9-10)

  10. What has changed? 1. the nature of linguistic diversity, due to globalization, changing patterns of migration, and different media and technologies of communication AND 2. the realisation that categories such as language , multilingualism , and so on have never adequately captured the complex reality of language use (HOW MUCH OF THIS IS REALLY NEWS TO SPEAKERS OF PACIFIC LANGUAGES?)

  11. The deployment of linguisticfeatures, rather than languages Languages are abstractions, they are sociocultural or ideological constructions which match real-life use of language poorly. This means that sociolinguistics the study of language as a social phenomenon - must work at another level of analysis with real-life language use. We use the level of (linguistic) features as the basis for understanding language use, and we claim that features are socioculturally associated with languages . (J rgensen, et al 2011, p.23)

  12. A more flexible multilingualism, characterised by: a focus on fluidity and flexibility, the prioritisation of language use rather than of abstract, idealised language models, and the understanding that we draw on whatever linguistic (and non-linguistic) resources are available to us, regardless of which language they are traditionally associated with.

  13. Key question Can rethinking multilingualism as the flexible use of multiple linguistic resources help me: a) analyse my data with relevant implications for education policy? b) discuss my findings with teachers from the study? c) discuss my findings with official policymakers?

  14. A brief example of how this rethinking helped me analyse my data Good night (North-East Ambae) Good night (French) F: Bongarea tufala R: Nah mas talem bon nuit nomo nao. French gal! S: Awo, mi jalus long yu yu save Franis. F: Honest. Yu jalus blong smol Franis nomo. Lukaot i no naf! S: Nah be yu save Franis. Yu intres long hem. Yu fit. No but you know French. You re interested in it.

  15. A summary of conclusions from the study The official line: English and French are valued equally, and there is no way that one will be dropped; All other languages (but particularly Bislama) are considered unsuitable for education, even though their utility is often acknowledged in this context Unofficially: Knowing a language does not mean knowing all of a language (minimal displays are sometimes enough); There is space for the resources of multiple languages to be used together, even in the classroom, if the focus can be shifted to learning, rather than language competence; Using multiple linguistic resources in school does not prevent the effective teaching of English/French.

  16. Attempt 1: Showing that multiple linguistic resources can work together in an academic context T: The first style that Hau ofa uses is oral story telling. And oral story telling hem i sem mak nomo olsem yumi wanem yumi kolem kastom stori. S: Dukuni T: Dukuni. Dukuni long lanwis blong yumi. Dukuni. Dukuni tavohi dave dam vano dam togarorongo, tomue morovo serigihi vataha revirevi dam vano dave da maturu rave ram veve na dukuni. Dukuni hi a style hi Hau ofa mo yusum? I sem mak nomo olsem stael we yumi stap yusum long= S: = Stori T: Stori blong yumi. Ale ahm dukuni ngerehi ram tangaloi ram veve ram stori oli stori out loud olsem ale yumi, o yumi olsem ol man we yumi stap long lesen nao ol audiences. Be Hau ofa hem i. Uses. Hem i yusum same particular style. S: Ah audience ngwere tangaloi ram toka ram rorotagi?= T: =Ram rorotagi ale Hau ofa nge mo. Oli kolem oral story telling from se Hau ofa i yusum stael ia olsem oral story telling ia nao. Hem i oral oli olsem talem out loud. Okay stori ia hem i olsem se particular style we Hau ofa i yusum ia? It s just as if hem i stap talemaot stori out loud to= S: =Evriwan T: Yes to one audience olsem

  17. What did the teacher herself say about this extract? This was outside class so it was okay. If I explained in English outside class, it would be odd. She s from my village. If I use too much Bislama or Lanwis in the classroom, they ll become competent in the wrong language a problem in the exams. It s very unusual to use my language, Bislama and English at the same time like this. I normally use one at a time.

  18. (Attempt 2: Discussion group, August 2014, with teachers who had participated in my 2011 research) Showing that L2-only doesn t necessarily require much L2 The blozz plimped haggily to the wembong How little language we need in order to survive in the L2 medium classroom. How much we need in order to succeed.

  19. Phloem cells are living cells T: Phloem cells are? Ss: Living cells T: They are not? Ss: Lignified It seems that students understand. Until we see their notes: Phloem cells are living cells. Phloem has cellulose (not lignified) cell walls. They can provide the answers from their notes, but we don t know whether they really understand.

  20. Who does most of the talking? What happens when the students don t give an answer? T: What can you see in the three pictures? S1: Old people S2: Small children S3: People working T: How do these pictures relate to our topic? (SILENCE) T: What is our topic? Ss: Dependency ratios T: Do these pictures show something about dependency ratios? Ss: Yes T: What do they show us? (SILENCE) T: Which people are dependent on others? Ss: Old people and children T: Who provides for them?

  21. What happens in the exam? Q: What is the function of the part marked on the diagram? A: When you are not agree with that something that you are doing you may move a mouse to it and it may come to empty space again The student understands the concept perfectly. But the student struggles to explain the concept in English and the answer is marked incorrect.

  22. Does this help? Using classroom data helps show that L2 only does not necessarily mean much L2 is actually used (particularly by the students); So it enables teachers to rethink some of the assumptions underlying school rules and teacher training; However, it doesn t get us past the but they should be better at L2 argument.

  23. Attempt 3: Presentation at Vanuatu Ministry of Education, August 2014 (Attendees from the Ministry, the Teachers College and the Curriculum Development Unit) Attempting to tackle each of the deep-rooted L2-only arguments in turn

  24. Feedback from the presentation Individual counter-arguments all accepted, e.g. relief from teacher trainers that it s okay to do what they re doing anyway (advising teachers to use L1 alongside L2) even 100% agreement that Bislama is suitable for education (including from one participant who had argued vehemently against it in an interview) BUT each counter-argument was quickly rebutted by one of the other arguments

  25. Attempt 4: Recognising the complexity and the interconnectedness of the whole, rather than individual arguments Opening up space for multilingual education in Vanuatu: Challenging the web of myths But prioritising English/French over the LEARNING OF CONTENT will not bring any opportunities for individuals or society But international evidence shows that this simply doesn t happen without EXPLICIT FL teaching But outside school, these languages are used in politics, non-formal education, business, etc. etc. Statistics show that ONLY 14% of jobs ask for English and French (20% require English; 0.7% French) Vanuatu data shows low levels of L2 CHANGE is needed Inside school, these languages have enormous instrumental potential to help children UNDERSTAND and PARTICIPATE Classroom data shows that teachers do all the language work: Students have no INCENTIVE to master the LOLT But Bislama is an official language, the language of parliament, etc. Interviews enabled participants to express some complex negative views ABOUT Bislama, IN Bislama! But multilingualism works JUST FINE in non-school learning events What s the difference? English & French bring automatic opportunities (both = best) People seem to want English AND French Clearly more than one language IS okay. The 106 vernaculars & Bislama have no value Any language can be mastered and then used as LOLT 3. We have empirical evidence that schools are far from monolingual it s not a local PROBLEM but a wider institutional REALITY Learning in one language is most logical and efficient Assessment is impractical in multiple languages Pidgins such as Bislama are linguistically inferior 2. 4. And why is Bislama described as unstable, when English and French are described as ALIVE and constantly DEVELOPING? 10 myths closing down space for multilingual education 1. 5. Time spent on vernaculars/Bislama could be better spent on English/French 10. But how much knowledge can students demonstrate in L2? What are tests testing? 6. 9. 7. Classroom 8. But CONTENT and LANGUAGE teaching are totally different management is impossible with multiple languages Corpus planning is impossible in so many languages There are viable alternatives for internal assessment in particular pragmatic solutions that depend on resources Materials are too costly and complex to produce With APPROPRIATE language teaching, English and French can still be learnt to a high standard Even where tests remain monolingual, they can be prepared for multilingually How do we challenge this? But classrooms will not be as chaotic as imagined Many languages are SHARED But these languages are already used to discuss complex topics outside school Corpus planning responds to NEED But there are currently very few books in ANY language! TEACHER TRAINING needs to provide teachers with techniques that will help them stay in control Books that do exist are inadequate for L2 learners the money could be BETTER spent Invert the problem: Can SPEAKERS access sufficient linguistic resources for their PURPOSES? (rather than asking whether a language is sufficiently capable) And profiting from students lack of expertise in the LOLT as a way of retaining teacher control can t be right! Students need to be able to ENGAGE Fiona Willans King s College London (ESRC funded: ES/H016775/1) Evidence from PNG shows that materials CAN

  26. Summary I found that too much rethinking can seem off-putting, but that people can be persuaded to rethink practice if they have the opportunity to judge for themselves whether arguments are validated by their own data; Providing concrete counter-arguments seemed the best way to dislodge stubborn arguments; Keeping the complex whole in focus is important, even while working on just one part of the whole; Evidence of what would work instead is obviously crucial, as well as challenging the status quo; If enough of this rethinking can be done through a sideways approach (government-level, teacher training, in communities ), change might become possible.

  27. Tangkiu tumas Vinaka vakalevu Mahalo All presentation materials are available at www.fionawillans.wordpress.com References from the talk Banda, Felix. (2009). Critical perspectives on language planning and policy in Africa: Accounting for the notion of multilingualism. Stellenbosch Papers in Linguistics PLUS, 38, 1-11. Blommaert, Jan, & Rampton, Ben. (2011). Language and superdiversity: A position paper. Working Papers in Urban Language & Literacies, 70. Heugh, K. (2003). Language policy and democracy in South Africa: The prospects of equality within rights-based policy and planning. (PhD), Stockholm University. J rgensen, N., Karreb k, M., Madsen, L., & M ller, J. (2011). Polylanguaging in superdiversity. Diversities, 13(2).

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