Syntax in Linguistics
University of Basrah
College of Arts
Department of Translation
Third Year
Linguistics
Syntax 1+ 2
Syntax
Syntax
The word “
The word “
syntax
syntax
” comes originally from Greek and literally means “
” comes originally from Greek and literally means “
a putting
a putting
together
together
” or “
” or “
arrangement
arrangement
.” It is concerned with the possible arrangement of words in
.” It is concerned with the possible arrangement of words in
a language . The basic unit in syntax is the sentence which minimally consists of a main
a language . The basic unit in syntax is the sentence which minimally consists of a main
close (
close (
S + V
S + V
).
).
Generative Grammar
Generative Grammar
It is a term coined by the famous linguist Noam Chomsky in 1957 to refer to the type
It is a term coined by the famous linguist Noam Chomsky in 1957 to refer to the type
of grammar that has a very explicit system of Rules which has a lot in common with the
of grammar that has a very explicit system of Rules which has a lot in common with the
types of rules found in
types of rules found in
Mathematics.
Mathematics.
Accordingly, a language ( Any Language) has the characteristics of being “ a set of
Accordingly, a language ( Any Language) has the characteristics of being “ a set of
finite or infinite sentences.” So, a GG has the ability to create totally
finite or infinite sentences.” So, a GG has the ability to create totally
Novel
Novel
(
(
New
New
) and
) and
grammatically accurate sentences
grammatically accurate sentences
.
To illustrate,
To illustrate,
in
in
Mathematics
Mathematics
, we have a set of
, we have a set of
finite
finite
number of
number of
Rules
Rules
that can
that can
generate
generate
an
an
infinite
infinite
number of
number of
Values
Values
:
:
Ex.
Ex.
3x + 2y = ?
3x + 2y = ?
If (
If (
X
X
) =
) =
5
5
and (
and (
Y
Y
) =
) =
10
10
the
the
formula
formula
becomes as the following :
becomes as the following :
3
3
x
x
5
5
+
+
2
2
x
x
10
10
=
=
35
35
So, whenever we give a
So, whenever we give a
value
value
to (
to (
X
X
) & (
) & (
Y
Y
) we shall have a new result,
) we shall have a new result,
and this means that, we can
and this means that, we can
generate
generate
an “
an “
Infinite
Infinite
” values using the same
” values using the same
basic elements; i.e. We can
basic elements; i.e. We can
generate
generate
an endless set of values by following
an endless set of values by following
the simple rules of
the simple rules of
Mathematics
Mathematics
.
.
The same is true for language, we have a set of
The same is true for language, we have a set of
finite
finite
number of rules,
number of rules,
that can generate an infinite number of grammatically accurate sentences
that can generate an infinite number of grammatically accurate sentences
by following the basic
by following the basic
Simple Rules
Simple Rules
.
.
To give more explanation, when we have an effective rule
To give more explanation, when we have an effective rule
such as “
such as “
a prepositional phrase in English consists of a
a prepositional phrase in English consists of a
preposition followed by a noun phrase
preposition followed by a noun phrase
,
,
” we can imagine an
” we can imagine an
extremely large number of English phrases that could be
extremely large number of English phrases that could be
produced using this rule. In fact, the potential number is
produced using this rule. In fact, the potential number is
unlimited. This reflects another goal of syntactic analysis,
unlimited. This reflects another goal of syntactic analysis,
which is to have a small and
which is to have a small and
finite
finite
(i.e.
(i.e.
limited
limited
) set of rules
) set of rules
that will be capable of producing a large and potentially
that will be capable of producing a large and potentially
infinite
infinite
(i.e.
(i.e.
unlimited
unlimited
) number of
) number of
well-formed structures
well-formed structures
. This
. This
small and
small and
finite
finite
set of rules is described as a
set of rules is described as a
Generative
Generative
Grammar
Grammar
because it can be used to “
because it can be used to “
generate
generate
” or produce
” or produce
sentence structures and not just describe them.
sentence structures and not just describe them.
Recursion
Recursion
It means that the rules of a Grammar have the ability to be applied
It means that the rules of a Grammar have the ability to be applied
more than once in generating a sentence
more than once in generating a sentence
( structure) either by repeating a phrase as often as required, or by
( structure) either by repeating a phrase as often as required, or by
generating a sentence inside another one:
generating a sentence inside another one:
Prep. P
Prep. P
.
.
Prep.P
Prep.P
Ex.1. The gun was
Ex.1. The gun was
on the table
on the table
,
,
near the window
near the window
. (
. (
Repeating a Phrase
Repeating a Phrase
)
)
2. John believed that Cathy knew that Marry helped George.
2. John believed that Cathy knew that Marry helped George.
(
(
sentence inside another sentence
sentence inside another sentence
)
)
Deep and Surface Structure
Deep and Surface Structure
Deep Structure
Deep Structure
: it is the
: it is the
abstract level of the structural organization
abstract level of the structural organization
in which all
in which all
the elements determining structural interpretation are represented.
the elements determining structural interpretation are represented.
Surface Structure
Surface Structure
:
:
it is the
it is the
representation of the structural interpretation
representation of the structural interpretation
of a sentence.
of a sentence.
So, a
So, a
GG
GG
has the ability of showing how a single underlying abstract
has the ability of showing how a single underlying abstract
representation can become the source of different surface structures, i.e. in a
representation can become the source of different surface structures, i.e. in a
GG
GG
, the
, the
same
same
Deep Structure
Deep Structure
can be the source of many other
can be the source of many other
Surface Structures
Surface Structures
:
:
As you can see above, in each example, all the
As you can see above, in each example, all the
4 sentences
4 sentences
(
(
Surface Structures
Surface Structures
)
)
have the same
have the same
Deep Structure
Deep Structure
.
.
Structural Ambiguity
Structural Ambiguity
It means that a sentence has
It means that a sentence has
two distinct underlying
two distinct underlying
interpretations
interpretations
which
which
represented in
represented in
O
O
ne Surface
ne Surface
S
S
tructure
tructure
. That is to say that ,
. That is to say that ,
Structural Ambiguity
Structural Ambiguity
happens when a sentence has two different
happens when a sentence has two different
Deep Structures
Deep Structures
, but only
, but only
One Surface
One Surface
Structure:
Structure:
Ex.
Ex.
They saw the man with the telescope
They saw the man with the telescope
. (
. (
SS
SS
)
)
Deep Structures
Deep Structures
: 1. They saw the man by using a telescope.
: 1. They saw the man by using a telescope.
2. They saw a man carries a telescope.
2. They saw a man carries a telescope.
Syntactic Structure
Syntactic Structure
Since
Since
any language has this set of explicit rules which are limited in
any language has this set of explicit rules which are limited in
number, but can generate an unlimited number of accurate and Novel
number, but can generate an unlimited number of accurate and Novel
sentences, this means that: any language has its own Syntactical
sentences, this means that: any language has its own Syntactical
Structure, i.e. it can generate ( all and only) well-formed sentences:
Structure, i.e. it can generate ( all and only) well-formed sentences:
Syntactical Structure
Syntactical Structure
In both cases, Sentences should be well formed ones.
In both cases, Sentences should be well formed ones.
Syntactic Analysis ( Description)
Syntactic Analysis ( Description)
To be able to represent the syntactic information in a more dynamic format,
To be able to represent the syntactic information in a more dynamic format,
the following are the most commonly used ( Symbols ) in syntactic analysis
the following are the most commonly used ( Symbols ) in syntactic analysis
(description⁾ :
(description⁾ :
1.
1.
The first symbol is in the form of an ( arrow ) which is interpreted as
The first symbol is in the form of an ( arrow ) which is interpreted as
( consists of ⁾ or ( rewrite⁾. That is to say that,
( consists of ⁾ or ( rewrite⁾. That is to say that,
one way of presenting the
one way of presenting the
concept “
concept “
consists of
consists of
” is with an arrow (
” is with an arrow (
), also interpreted as “
), also interpreted as “
rewrite
rewrite
as
as
.” The following rule states that a noun phrase (
.” The following rule states that a noun phrase (
NP
NP
) such as
) such as
the dog
the dog
consists
consists
of
of
or
or
rewrites as (
rewrites as (
) an article (
) an article (
the
the
) and a noun (
) and a noun (
dog
dog
). This simple formula is
). This simple formula is
the underlying structure of millions of different English phrases.
the underlying structure of millions of different English phrases.
NP
NP
Art.+ N
Art.+ N
2. The second symbol is “ a Pair of round brackets
2. The second symbol is “ a Pair of round brackets
( )
( )
” . It means that,
” . It means that,
anything occurs inside these round brackets will be treated as an “
anything occurs inside these round brackets will be treated as an “
OPTIONAL
OPTIONAL
CONSTITUENT “
CONSTITUENT “
eg.
eg.
She hits the
She hits the
( small)
( small)
cat.
cat.
3. The third common symbol is the form of curly brackets
3. The third common symbol is the form of curly brackets
“{ }“{ }”. These indicate
”. These indicate
that only
that only
one
one
of the elements enclosed within the curly brackets must be selected:
of the elements enclosed within the curly brackets must be selected:
4.The forth symbol is the “ Double Arrow” ( ) which is interpreted as
4.The forth symbol is the “ Double Arrow” ( ) which is interpreted as
“
“
transformed to
transformed to
”:
”:
Active
Active
Transformed to
Transformed to
passive
passive
eg. -We made mistakes. Mistakes were made.
eg. -We made mistakes. Mistakes were made.
- The cat kills the mice. The mice are killed by the cat.
- The cat kills the mice. The mice are killed by the cat.
- He will write a letter. The letter will be written by him.
- He will write a letter. The letter will be written by him.
5. The following are the rest of the symbols that are used in “
5. The following are the rest of the symbols that are used in “
Syntactic
Syntactic
description
description
”:
”:
Phrase – Structure Rules
Phrase – Structure Rules
They are the
They are the
Rules
Rules
that refer to the different level of
that refer to the different level of
Syntactic analysis
Syntactic analysis
of a sentence
of a sentence
, showing its structure of
, showing its structure of
NP
NP
and
and
VP
VP
:
:
S
S
NP
NP
+
+
VP
VP
eg. Mary saw George recently
eg. Mary saw George recently
NP
NP
{ { Art.
Art.
+(
+(
Adj
Adj
.) +
.) +
N
N
,
,
Pro
Pro
. ,
. ,
PN
PN
}
}
eg. The beautiful child , They, We, Mary, John.
eg. The beautiful child , They, We, Mary, John.
VP
VP
V
V
+
+
NP
NP
(
(
Pp
Pp
), (
), (
Adv
Adv
. )
. )
washes the dishes (by herself), yesterday.
washes the dishes (by herself), yesterday.
Pp
Pp
Prep
Prep
. +
. +
NP
NP
by train, with his father, near the window .
by train, with his father, near the window .
Lexical Rules
Lexical Rules
Phrase structure rules generate structures. In order to turn those structures
Phrase structure rules generate structures. In order to turn those structures
into recognizable English, we also need
into recognizable English, we also need
lexical rules
lexical rules
that specify which words can
that specify which words can
be used when we rewrite constituents such as
be used when we rewrite constituents such as
PN
PN
. The first rule in the following
. The first rule in the following
set states that “
set states that “
a proper
a proper
noun
noun
rewrites as
rewrites as
John
John
or
or
Mary
Mary
.” (It is a very small world.)
.” (It is a very small world.)
PN
PN
→ {John, Mary} → {John, Mary} Art
Art
→ {a, the} → {a, the}N
N
→ {girl, dog, boy} → {girl, dog, boy} Adj
Adj
→ {big, small} → {big, small}V
V
→ {followed, helped, saw} → {followed, helped, saw} Pro
Pro
→ {it, you} → {it, you}We can rely on these rules to generate the grammatical sentences shown below
We can rely on these rules to generate the grammatical sentences shown below
in
in
(1)–
(1)–
(6)
(6)
, but not the ungrammatical sentences shown in
, but not the ungrammatical sentences shown in
(7)–(12).
(7)–(12).
(1)
(1)
A dog followed the boy
A dog followed the boy
. (7)
. (7)
*
*
Dog followed boy.
Dog followed boy.
(2)
(2)
You saw it
You saw it
. (8)
. (8)
*
*
You it saw.
You it saw.
(3)
(3)
John saw the big dog
John saw the big dog
. (9)
. (9)
*
*
John Mary small dog
John Mary small dog
(4)
(4)
It followed Mary
It followed Mary
. (10)
. (10)
*
*
Followed Mary the dog big.
Followed Mary the dog big.
(5)
(5)
The small boy helped you
The small boy helped you
. (11)
. (11)
*
*
The helped you boy
The helped you boy
(6)
(6)
Mary helped John
Mary helped John
. (12
. (12
*
*
Mary John helped.
Mary John helped.
Transformational Rules
Transformational Rules
They are the rules that take a specific art of structure away from one
They are the rules that take a specific art of structure away from one
art and attached it to a different part. Transformational rules also
art and attached it to a different part. Transformational rules also
used to derive English questions structures from sentences
used to derive English questions structures from sentences
Tree Diagrams
Tree Diagrams
One of the best ways to create a visual representation of underlying syntactic
One of the best ways to create a visual representation of underlying syntactic
structure is through tree diagrams. We can use the symbols introduced earlier to
structure is through tree diagrams. We can use the symbols introduced earlier to
label parts of the tree when we create a representation of how each part fits into
label parts of the tree when we create a representation of how each part fits into
the underlying structure of phrases. The information in a phrase structure rule, on
the underlying structure of phrases. The information in a phrase structure rule, on
the left, can be expressed in a tree diagram, on the right, as in the following figure
the left, can be expressed in a tree diagram, on the right, as in the following figure
.
.
Although this kind of “
Although this kind of “
tree
tree
,” with its “
,” with its “
branches
branches
,” on the right, seems to grow
,” on the right, seems to grow
down rather than up, it functions rather well as a diagram representing all the
down rather than up, it functions rather well as a diagram representing all the
grammatical information found in the other analysis on the left. It also shows very
grammatical information found in the other analysis on the left. It also shows very
explicitly that there are different levels in the analysis. That is, there is a level of
explicitly that there are different levels in the analysis. That is, there is a level of
analysis at which a constituent such as
analysis at which a constituent such as
NP
NP
is represented and a different, lower,
is represented and a different, lower,
level at which a constituent such as
level at which a constituent such as
N
N
is represented.
is represented.
We can use a similar tree diagram to represent the more complex structure of an
We can use a similar tree diagram to represent the more complex structure of an
English verb phrase (
English verb phrase (
VP
VP
), as shown in the previous figure. Once again, this type of
), as shown in the previous figure. Once again, this type of
diagram provides a way of representing the hierarchical nature of underlying
diagram provides a way of representing the hierarchical nature of underlying
structure. In this hierarchy, the verb phrase (
structure. In this hierarchy, the verb phrase (
VP
VP
) in higher than and contains the verb
) in higher than and contains the verb
(
(
V
V
) and a noun phrase (
) and a noun phrase (
NP
NP
). The noun phrase (NP) is higher than and contains the
). The noun phrase (NP) is higher than and contains the
article (
article (
Art
Art
) and the noun (
) and the noun (
N
N
).
).
Tree Diagrams of English Sentences
Tree Diagrams of English Sentences
We can now put together tree diagrams for whole sentences, hierarchically organized,
We can now put together tree diagrams for whole sentences, hierarchically organized,
as shown in the figure above. Notice that essentially the same basic tree diagram
as shown in the figure above. Notice that essentially the same basic tree diagram
structure is the foundation for all the different sentences (1)–(6), with variable
structure is the foundation for all the different sentences (1)–(6), with variable
constituents included in each one.
constituents included in each one.
S
S
NP VP
NP VP
V CP
V CP
C S
C S
NP VP
NP VP
PN
PN
PN V CP
PN V CP
C S
C S
NP VP
NP VP
PN V NP
PN V NP
PN
PN
John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George.
John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George.
Syntax, originating from Greek meaning arrangement, deals with the structure of sentences in a language. Generative Grammar, coined by Noam Chomsky, uses rules akin to mathematics to create new, grammatically accurate sentences. By applying recursion and deep structure analysis, linguists explore the complexity and infinite possibilities of language generation.
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University of Basrah College of Arts Department of Translation Third Year Linguistics Syntax 1+ 2
Syntax The word syntax comes originally from Greek and literally means a putting together or arrangement. It is concerned with the possible arrangement of words in a language . The basic unit in syntax is the sentence which minimally consists of a main close ( S + V). Generative Grammar It is a term coined by the famous linguist Noam Chomsky in 1957 to refer to the type of grammar that has a very explicit system of Rules which has a lot in common with the types of rules found in Mathematics. Accordingly, a language ( Any Language) has the characteristics of being a set of finite or infinite sentences. So, a GG has the ability to create totally Novel ( New ) and grammatically accurate sentences.
To illustrate, in Mathematics, we have a set of finite number of Rules that can generate an infinite number of Values: Ex. 3x + 2y = ? If ( X ) = 5 and ( Y) = 10 the formula becomes as the following : 3x5 + 2x10 = 35 So, whenever we give a value to ( X ) & ( Y ) we shall have a new result, and this means that, we can generate an Infinite values using the same basic elements; i.e. We can generate an endless set of values by following the simple rules of Mathematics. The same is true for language, we have a set of finite number of rules, that can generate an infinite number of grammatically accurate sentences by following the basic Simple Rules.
To give more explanation, when we have an effective rule such as a prepositional phrase in English consists of a preposition followed by a noun phrase, we can imagine an extremely large number of English phrases that could be produced using this rule. In fact, the potential number is unlimited. This reflects another goal of syntactic analysis, which is to have a small and finite (i.e. limited) set of rules that will be capable of producing a large and potentially infinite (i.e. unlimited) number of well-formed structures. This small and finite set of rules is described as a Generative Grammar because it can be used to generate or produce sentence structures and not just describe them.
Recursion It means that the rules of a Grammar have the ability to be applied more than once in generating a sentence ( structure) either by repeating a phrase as often as required, or by generating a sentence inside another one: Prep. P. Prep.P Ex.1. The gun was on the table, near the window. ( Repeating a Phrase) 2. John believed that Cathy knew that Marry helped George. ( sentence inside another sentence)
Deep and Surface Structure Deep Structure: it is the abstract level of the structural organization in which all the elements determining structural interpretation are represented. Surface Structure: it is the representation of the structural interpretation of a sentence. So, a GG has the ability of showing how a single underlying abstract representation can become the source of different surface structures, i.e. in a GG, the same Deep Structure can be the source of many other Surface Structures: - Charlie broke the window. - It was Charlie who broke the window. - The window was broken by Charlie. - Was the window broken by Charlie? - Kate washes the dishes. - The dishes was washed by Kate. - It was Kate who washed the dishes. - Was it Kate who washes the dishes? As you can see above, in each example, all the 4 sentences ( Surface Structures) have the same Deep Structure.
Structural Ambiguity It means that a sentence has two distinct underlying interpretations which represented in One Surface Structure. That is to say that , Structural Ambiguity happens when a sentence has two different Deep Structures, but only One Surface Structure: Ex. They saw the man with the telescope. ( SS) Deep Structures: 1. They saw the man by using a telescope. 2. They saw a man carries a telescope.
Syntactic Structure Since any language has this set of explicit rules which are limited in number, but can generate an unlimited number of accurate and Novel sentences, this means that: any language has its own Syntactical Structure, i.e. it can generate ( all and only) well-formed sentences: Syntactical Structure The ability to generate Sentences that are superficially different, but they are closely related: - Charlie broke the window. (Active) - The window was broken by Charlie. ( Passive ) The Ability to generate sentences that are superficially similar, but they are different in meanings: - He reads this book. (SVO) - She washes the dishes. ( SVO) In both cases, Sentences should be well formed ones.
Syntactic Analysis ( Description) To be able to represent the syntactic information in a more dynamic format, the following are the most commonly used ( Symbols ) in syntactic analysis (description : 1. The first symbol is in the form of an ( arrow ) which is interpreted as ( consists of or ( rewrite . That is to say that, one way of presenting the concept consists of is with an arrow ( as. The following rule states that a noun phrase (NP) such as the dog consists of or rewrites as ( ) an article (the) and a noun (dog). This simple formula is the underlying structure of millions of different English phrases. NP Art.+ N 2. The second symbol is a Pair of round brackets ( ) . It means that, anything occurs inside these round brackets will be treated as an OPTIONAL CONSTITUENT eg. She hits the ( small) cat. ), also interpreted as rewrite
3. The third common symbol is the form of curly brackets { }. These indicate that only one of the elements enclosed within the curly brackets must be selected: eg. NP { Art + N Only one choice should be selected when we are going to generate a sentence. (Adj.) +N Pro. Prep. + NP Proper N } 4.The forth symbol is the DoubleArrow ( transformed to : Active ) which is interpreted as passive Transformed to eg. -We made mistakes. Mistakes were made. - The cat kills the mice. The mice are killed by the cat. - He will write a letter. The letter will be written by him.
5. The following are the rest of the symbols that are used in Syntactic description : No. Symbol Full term No. Symbol Full Term 1 S Sentence 9 Pp. Prepositional phrase 2 N Noun 10 NP Noun phrase 3 V Verb 11 VP Verb phrase 4 Art Article 12 CP Complemented phrase 5 PN Proper Noun 13 Pro. Pronoun 6 Adv. Adverb 14 Aux. Auxiliary verb 7 Adj. Adjective 15 C Complementizer ( eg. Who, that, which, etc.) Ungrammatical Sentence 8 Pre. Preposition 16 *
Phrase Structure Rules They are the Rules that refer to the different level of Syntactic analysis of a sentence, showing its structure of NP and VP: S NP + VP eg. Mary saw George recently NP { Art. +( Adj.) + N ,Pro. , PN} eg. The beautiful child , They, We, Mary, John. VP V+ NP ( Pp), (Adv. ) washes the dishes (by herself), yesterday. Pp Prep. + NP by train, with his father, near the window .
Lexical Rules Phrase structure rules generate structures. In order to turn those structures into recognizable English, we also need lexical rules that specify which words can be used when we rewrite constituents such as PN. The first rule in the following set states that a proper noun rewrites as John or Mary. (It is a very small world.) PN {John, Mary} Art {a, the} N {girl, dog, boy} Adj {big, small} V {followed, helped, saw} Pro {it, you} We can rely on these rules to generate the grammatical sentences shown below in (1) (6), but not the ungrammatical sentences shown in (7) (12). (1) Adog followed the boy. (7) *Dog followed boy. (2) You saw it. (8) *You it saw. (3) John saw the big dog. (9) *John Mary small dog (4) It followed Mary. (10) *Followed Mary the dog big. (5) The small boy helped you. (11) *The helped you boy (6) Mary helped John. (12 *Mary John helped.
Transformational Rules They are the rules that take a specific art of structure away from one art and attached it to a different part. Transformational rules also used to derive English questions structures from sentences S S Transformed NP VP Adv. NP VP PN V NP Adv. V NP PN Mary saw George recently PN Recently Mary saw George
S S Transformed NP Aux. VP Aux. NP VP Pro. V NP Pro. V NP PN PN You will help Cathy. Will you help Cathy An Interrogative Sentence A declarative Sentence
Tree Diagrams One of the best ways to create a visual representation of underlying syntactic structure is through tree diagrams. We can use the symbols introduced earlier to label parts of the tree when we create a representation of how each part fits into the underlying structure of phrases. The information in a phrase structure rule, on the left, can be expressed in a tree diagram, on the right, as in the following figure. Although this kind of tree, with its branches, on the right, seems to grow down rather than up, it functions rather well as a diagram representing all the grammatical information found in the other analysis on the left. It also shows very explicitly that there are different levels in the analysis. That is, there is a level of analysis at which a constituent such as NP is represented and a different, lower, level at which a constituent such as N is represented.
We can use a similar tree diagram to represent the more complex structure of an English verb phrase (VP), as shown in the previous figure. Once again, this type of diagram provides a way of representing the hierarchical nature of underlying structure. In this hierarchy, the verb phrase (VP) in higher than and contains the verb (V) and a noun phrase (NP). The noun phrase (NP) is higher than and contains the article (Art) and the noun (N). Tree Diagrams of English Sentences We can now put together tree diagrams for whole sentences, hierarchically organized, as shown in the figure above. Notice that essentially the same basic tree diagram structure is the foundation for all the different sentences (1) (6), with variable constituents included in each one.
S NP VP V CP C S NP VP PN PN V CP C S NP VP PN V NP PN John believed that Cathy knew that Mary helped George.
