Syntax and Grammar Components
2.
Syntax=the user of the product of
morphology
•
Syntax-
is
one of the
subcomponents
of
grammar
;
-the study of the
internal structure
of
phrases/sentences
;
-the study of the
relationship
among their
component
parts;
2.1
Components of grammar=
Language system
I. Lexicon/
Vocabulary/dictionary-
-
provides lexical items
II. PF component/
sound-
-Phonological Form
III. Syntactic component/
Grammar-
-
a. PSR-Phrase Structure Rule
b. TR-Transformational Rule
IV. LF component/
meaning-
-Logical Form
=Any form of language contains
words
(
Lexicon
);
-words are ‘made up of’
sounds (PF)
-
words
are arranged in some way to
make structure
(
PSR/TR
)
-words are arranged
meaningfully
(
LF
).
•
Eg. [man, ball, hit, the]
•
-The lexicon provides
the lexical items with the category
(man
N,
ball
N,
hit
V,
the
Det)
and
•
the PF
determines the
sound/pronunciation of words
;
•
the phrase structure rule
provides the
structure/skeleton
with the
word categories.
•
-The LF
governs the acceptability of the arrangement of
items
and
•
-TR-
is applied for further structures (questions, and
others
)
4
PSR= provides the structure/skeleton
V
N
S
NP
VP
Det
NP
Det
N
2.2
Constituents
=
Constituent:
one of the parts of something that
combine to form the whole.
-It is a
unit
or
part
of a given larger
structure
.
•
Eg. John slept.
•
John left home.
•
The boy left home.
•
Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
•
Criteria for determining constituents
-
some
words
are
grouped
together to form a
unit
to the
exclusion of other words within the sentence.
1.
Movement
=within a sentence some group of words may
move
around together as a
unit
and others cannot.
-the fact that a given sub-string of words can
move
is
evidenced that it is a
constituent
.
•
Eg. Change the following sentence in to
passive
and
question
.
•
=I have seen
those 3 pictures of Mary
.
•
Passive=
•
Wh-Question (which)
=
•
On the other hand,
3 pictures of
cannot be
moved as a unit, and it tells us that it is not a
constituent.
•
Example:
a.
*
3 pictures of
have been seen those Mary by
me.
b.
*
Which 3 pictures of
have you seen those Mary?
-Therefore, one way to ascertain the constituency is
to find out whether the given string can move
around in the given sentence.
2.
Coordination=
if a given sub string of words can
be shown to be joined with another, then both
sub-strings are
constituents
.
-only constituents (of same type) can be conjoined.
•
Example:
a. I met your
mother
and
father
.
b. Is she
in the kitchen
or
in the bathroom
?
c. He has
a cat
and
a dog.
d. He speaks
very slowly
but
very articulately
.
•
The difference between movement and coordination
•
In movement, the larger/whole part of the structure is
moved, but in coordination, part of the larger structure
can be coordinated with another similar structure,
Example: John bought
the large cup
.
a.
The large cup
was bought by John.
b.
*
Large cup
was
bought the by John.
c. John bought
the large cup
and
the small picture
.
d. John bought the
large cup
and
small picture
.
-This shows that,
coordination
is a sufficient condition for a
constituent, movement requires further conditions to be
satisfied.
-whereas all constituents can be coordinated, only
constituents that are maximal in size can be moved.
c.
Pronominalization or substitution
-Certain substrings of words in a sentence
behave
as a
constituent
in the that they may be
substituted
by a
single word---a
pronoun
or other
pro-forms
.
Example:
1. Substitute the underlined structure with a single
word.
a.
The book on the table
is on sale.
b.
The man who came yesterday
is my brother.
c.
I ran
up the hill
.
2. How many constituents does the underlined
structure have in each of the following sentences?
a.
I put
the book on the table
.
b.
I gave
a book to the man
.
d.
Ellipsis or omission
-Given an appropriate context, a
constituent
may be
omitted
in whole at the same time, but a
non
constituent
cannot be omitted.
Eg. a. John
loves his mother
, and Bill
loves his mother
.
- John
loves his mother
, and Bill does ___ too.
b. John could
talk to Bill yesterday
, but I could not
talk
to Bill yesterday
.
- John could
talk to Bill yesterday
, but I could
not__________.
c. John
left for the trip yesterday
, and Mary
left for the
trip yesterday
.
-John
left for the trip yesterday
, and Mary did ____too.
=This concept is applicable in teaching
eco-construction
2.3
Phrase Structure (Phrasal Category)
•
Word category=Phrasal category
(N=NP, V=VP,
AJ=AJP, AV=AVP, P=PP)
•
Components of Phrase structure
=
Specifier-Head-Complement (SHC)
a. Head –
the obligatory element of a phrase (N/V/A/P)
b. Specifier
-
semantically
, makes the meaning of the
head more precise;
-
syntactically
, it is attached at the top level of the
structure, to the left of the head.(det for N/Qual for V
and Deg for A/P)
c
.
Complements
-to complete the meaning of the head;
it is attached the right of the head.
•
Possible
Organizations
of
phrase structures
a.
Only head phrase
Example
: NP –
He
likes books
.
VP -
All animals
eat
.
AP –
She is
certain
.
PP –
He went
in
.
b. Specifier
and
head phrase
Example: NP –
The man
is tall
.
VP –
Non living things
never die.
AP –
The boy is
very tall
.
PP –
He was
almost in
.
c
.
Head and complement phrase
Example: NP -
King of the country
declared war
.
VP –
The man
killed the lion
.
AP –
He is
certain about the incident
.
PP –
I am
in a class
.
d. specifier-head-complement phrase
Example: NP –
The king of the country
declared war.
VP –
He
never eat a hamburger
.
AP –
I was
quite certain about Mary
.
PP
– He was
almost in the house
.
•
Phrase Structure Rule (PSR)
for the different
types of phrases
1.
PSR of Noun Phrase (NP)
a.
Boys like basketball games.
b.
The Boys like basketball games.
c.
Tall Boys like basketball games.
d.
The tall bays like basketball games.
NP-----(Det) (AP) N
PSR of Noun Phrase (NP)
a.
Boys from this school like basketball games.
b.
Boys who are tall tend to like basketball
games.
c.
Boys from this school who are tall tend to like
basketball games.
NP-----N (PP) (S)
a.
The king of England had unhappy life.
b.
The young king of England had unhappy life.
c.
The young king who gave up his throne had
unhappy life.
d.
The king of England who gave up his throne had
unhappy life.
NP----- (Det) (AP) N (PP) (S)
=This rule tells us the
possible order
and
elements
of a
noun phrase.
Exercise: rewrite all the possible
PSRs
of
NP
.
1. Verb Phrase (VP)
a.
John died. ( VP---V)
b.
John saw Bill. (VP---V NP)
c.
John lived in USA. (VP---V PP)
d.
John thought Bill kicked the bucket. (VP---V S)
e.
John gave the boy a nice gift. (VP---V NP NP)
f.
John put the book on the table. (VP---V NP PP)
g.
John told the little boy he won a prize. (VP---V NP S)
NP
=VP V (NP) PP
S
3.
Prepositional Phrases (PP)
a.
The train pulled in. (PP---P)
b.
John lived in the garage. (PP---P NP)
=PP --------P (NP)
4.
Adjective Phrase
Eg. Good, very good, extremely young, quite
certain about;
=AP --------(deg) A (PP)
•
Phrase Structure Rules
•
NP------(spec) N (comp)
•
VP------(spec) V (comp)
•
PP------(spec) P (comp)
•
AP------(spec) A (comp)
•
AdvP------(spec) Adv (comp)
•
The XP Rule
•
XP------ (spec) X(comp)
5. Sentence
a.
Traditional view of sentences
=S -------- NP VP
E.G. A scientist discovered the answer.
b.
Contemporary view of sentences
=S =IP-------- NP Aux VP
=Aux--------Tense (Modal) (Perf) (Prog)
E.G. A scientist discovered the answer.
6.
Coordinate Structure
Properties of coordinate structure
1. There is
no
limit
on the number of coordinated
categories that can appear
prior
to the
conjunction
.
Eg
. I bought a book, a pencil, an eraser and a pen.
2. A
category
at
any level
(a
head
or an entire
phrase
)
can be
coordinated
.
Eg. Book and magazine/ up and down (head)
3.
Coordinated categories
must be of the
same
type
.
-NP and NP/VP and VP---
4. The
category type
of the
coordinate phrase
is identical to
the
category type
of the
elements
being
conjoined
.
=VP-----VP and VP
=NP-----NP and NP
=PP-----PP and PP
Eg. John ran
up the mountain and down the river
.
PP-----PP conj PP
X------X ((Conj)…)Conj X (X can be word level or phrasal
level)
Structural Ambiguity
•
A
word may have more than
one meaning,
so
that such a word is
ambiguous
.
•
Eg. I got a
mouse (ambiguous)
today.
•
The different
meanings
of an ambiguous word
can be determine in
context of use
.
•
A structure may also have more than
one
meaning
, so that such a structure is
ambiguous
structure
.
The
different meanings of ambiguous structures
can be determined by using
different structures
in a tree diagram
.
Example of structural ambiguity
1. The old
man
and
woman
2. The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive. (
use
verb to be and tag question to see the two
meanings
)
a.
The mother of the boy and the girl
is
arriving.
b.
The mother of the boy and the girl
are
arriving.
c.
The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive,
wont
she?
d.
The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive,
wont
they?
26
The boy saw the man with the telescope
V
PP
with
NP
P
the
Det
N
telescope
The
N
saw
S
NP
VP
Det
boy
NP
the
Det
N
man
Write the Meaning of this structure.
27
The boy saw the man with the telescope
V
PP
with
NP
P
the
Det
N
telescope
The
N
saw
S
NP
VP
Det
boy
NP
the
Det
N
man
Write the Meaning of this structure.
7.
Embedded Structures
-we discussed simple sentences, conjoined sentences and
embedded clauses/sentences.
Eg. a) John told the little boy he won a prize.
b) The man who was mixing it fell into the cement.
-However, there are other embedded structures that our
PSR cannot generate.
-We find embedded clauses preceded by elements like, that,
if, whether, for
a.
I know
that
she won the grand prize.
b.
I wonder
if
she won the grand prize.
c.
John and Bill asked
whether
we would meet them.
d.
I prefer
for
you to tell me the truth.
that, if
,
whether
and
for
function to introduce sentential
complement.
Thus, these elements are
complmentizers
.
•
The use of complmentizer is also seen with a clause
embedded within NP.
•
EG.
a.
We believe the claim that the chicken existed before the
egg.
b.
I like the book which she bought at the newsstand.
How can we amend the PSR to accommodate sentential
complements?
Look at the relationships of a
complmentizer
with the rest of
the sentence.
There is evidence that the complmentizer forms a constituent
with the embedded S in each case, since the string
Complmentizer+S passes at least one test of constituency:
•
Eg. a.
That she won the grand prize
, I know.
(
movement
)
b. The theory
that you develo
ped
and
that your
friends believe
won’t hold much water.
(
coordination
)
c. The theory
you developed
won’t hold much
water.
(embedded clause without complmentizer)
-complmentizers are optionals.
S’-----(Comp) S
Comp-----that, whether, if, for, which, why,…
•
Revise the PSRs of NP, VP and S
;
•
PSR of NP and VP:
NP------ a. pronoun
b. (Det) (AP) N (PP) (S’)
NP
VP-------V (NP) PP
S’
•
Revised rule for S=IP
EG. a.
That he won the grand prize
surprises me.
b.
Why he left
puzzles me.
NP
S-------- S’ (AUX) VP
AUX----- Inf
Modal (Perf) (Prog)
Comp----C
S’ =CP-----(C) S
•
Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure
Deep Structure = PSR + Lexicon
Surface Structure =TR
TR=Affix Hopping/Subject Auxiliary
Inversion/Do-support/Wh-movement
1.
Affix Hopping=for Declarative sentences
Affix hopping
-the process of
attaching
an
affix
to a
verbal
element
.
-when you have an
affix
in the
P-marker
immediately
followed by
auxiliary
or
verbal
element, attach the affix to
the immediately following element as a
suffix
.
AUX-
--Tns (Modal) (Perf) (Prog)
Modal-
--will/may/can
Perf-
-----have/has
Prog-
---be/-ing
Eg. John would be singing. (How is it derived?)
Lexicon+PSR
=John –ed will be –ing sing=DS
TR/Affix Hopping
=John will+ed be sing+ing =
=John would be singing=SS
2.
Subject Auxiliary Inversion=for Yes/No Questions
-
Invert
the
subject
and the
auxiliary
position;
-
Bring
the
auxiliary
before the
subject
;
Eg. John will see Bill tomorrow.
What will be the Yes/No question?
3.
Do-Support=for Yes/No question
-The rule says,
insert verb to do
immediately after the
tense
affix
to
support
that
affix
;
-insertion
of
verb to do
in order to support the process of
Yes/No question
formation when there is no
auxiliary
element in the
declarative
sentence.
Eg. Mary loves John.
Lexicon+PSR
=Mary –es love John.=DS
SAI
=es Mary love John.= I
ntermediate structure
Do
-
Support
=es do Mary love John. =Inter. structure
Affix Hopping
=do+es Mary love John.
Does Mary love John?=SS
-The order of transformational rules=
SAI—Do-Support—
Affix Hopping
Rule of Passive formation
Eg. John cheated Bill=Bill was cheated (by John)
R
ules/Operations
a.
Remove
the
subject
of the active sentence from
the
subject
position
and make it an
optional
PP
at the end of the sentence;
b.
Move
the
object
to the
vacated
subject
position
;
c.
Insert
the
passive-morpheme
that consists of
the sequence
be-en
(
verb to be
and
past
participle
), as the
rightmost
element of
auxiliary
before
VP
;
Eg. =DS of the active=John –ed cheat Bill.
=
Remove the subject=
ed cheat Bill (by John)
=
Move the object=
Bill –ed cheat (by John)
=
Insert passive morpheme=
Bill –ed be-en cheat (by John)
=
Affix Hopping=
Bill be+ed cheat+en (by John)
= SS of passive=Bill was cheated (by John)
=The
meaning
of the
active
and
passive
are the same because
both are
derived from the same DS
.
=Active and passive are synonyms/paraphrases
=phoneme/allophones, morpheme/allomorphs, D-S/SSs
4.
Wh-question/information/content question
-Move
a
wh-word
to the
beginning
of the sentence
;
Eg. John bought a book.=What did john buy?
-John –ed buy a book=DS
-John –ed buy what=information missing
-What John –ed buy----
wh-movement
triggered by
Q
morpheme
-
What –ed John buy—
SAI
-What –ed do John buy---
Do-Support
-What do+ed John buy—
Affix Hopping
-What did John buy?=SS
5.
Negative
formation
= place the
negative
element
(
not
) after
auxiliary
;
Eg. John did not come yesterday.
-John –ed come yesterday=
DS
-John –ed not come yesterday=
placement of Negative
-John –ed do not come yesterday=
Do-Support
-John do+ed not come yesterday=
Affix Hopping
-John did not come yesterday=
SS
Syntax is a vital subcomponent of grammar that involves studying the internal structure and relationship of phrases and sentences. Grammar components include Lexicon/Vocabulary, Phonological Form, Syntactic component/Grammar, and Logical Form. Constituents are parts that combine to form a whole structure, determined by movement criteria. By understanding constituents through movement tests, the structure of sentences can be analyzed effectively.
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2. Syntax=the user of the product of morphology Syntax- is one of the subcomponents of grammar; -the study of the internal structure of phrases/sentences; -the study of the relationship among their component parts;
2.1 Components of grammar=Language system I. Lexicon/Vocabulary/dictionary--provides lexical items II. PF component/sound--Phonological Form III. Syntactic component/Grammar-- a. PSR-Phrase Structure Rule b. TR-Transformational Rule IV. LF component/meaning--Logical Form =Any form of language contains words (Lexicon); -words are made up of sounds (PF) -words are arranged in some way to make structure (PSR/TR) -words are arranged meaningfully (LF).
Eg. [man, ball, hit, the] -The lexicon provides the lexical items with the category (man N, ball N, hit V, the Det) and the PF determines the sound/pronunciation of words; the phrase structure rule provides the structure/skeleton with the word categories. -The LF governs the acceptability of the arrangement of items and -TR- is applied for further structures (questions, and others)
PSR= provides the structure/skeleton S NP VP Det NP N V Det N 4
2.2 Constituents= Constituent: one of the parts of something that combine to form the whole. -It is a unit or part of a given larger structure. Eg. John slept. John left home. The boy left home. Colorless green ideas sleep furiously.
Criteria for determining constituents -some words are grouped together to form a unit to the exclusion of other words within the sentence. 1. Movement=within a sentence some group of words may move around together as a unit and others cannot. -the fact that a given sub-string of words can move is evidenced that it is a constituent. Eg. Change the following sentence in to passive and question. =I have seen those 3 pictures of Mary. Passive= Wh-Question (which)=
On the other hand, 3 pictures of cannot be moved as a unit, and it tells us that it is not a constituent. Example: a. *3 pictures of have been seen those Mary by me. b. *Which 3 pictures of have you seen those Mary? -Therefore, one way to ascertain the constituency is to find out whether the given string can move around in the given sentence.
2. Coordination=if a given sub string of words can be shown to be joined with another, then both sub-strings are constituents. -only constituents (of same type) can be conjoined. Example: a. I met your mother and father. b. Is she in the kitchen or in the bathroom? c. He has a cat and a dog. d. He speaks very slowly but very articulately.
The difference between movement and coordination In movement, the larger/whole part of the structure is moved, but in coordination, part of the larger structure can be coordinated with another similar structure, Example: John bought the large cup. a. The large cup was bought by John. b. *Large cup wasbought the by John. c. John bought the large cup and the small picture. d. John bought the large cup and small picture. -This shows that, coordination is a sufficient condition for a constituent, movement requires further conditions to be satisfied. -whereas all constituents can be coordinated, only constituents that are maximal in size can be moved.
c. Pronominalization or substitution -Certain substrings of words in a sentence behave as a constituent in the that they may be substituted by a single word---a pronoun or other pro-forms. Example: 1. Substitute the underlined structure with a single word. a. The book on the table is on sale. b. The man who came yesterday is my brother. c. I ran up the hill. 2. How many constituents does the underlined structure have in each of the following sentences? a. I put the book on the table. b. I gave a book to the man.
d. Ellipsis or omission -Given an appropriate context, a constituent may be omitted in whole at the same time, but a non constituent cannot be omitted. Eg. a. John loves his mother, and Bill loves his mother. - John loves his mother, and Bill does ___ too. b. John could talk to Bill yesterday, but I could not talk to Bill yesterday. - John could talk to Bill yesterday, but I could not__________. c. John left for the trip yesterday, and Mary left for the trip yesterday. -John left for the trip yesterday, and Mary did ____too. =This concept is applicable in teaching eco-construction
2.3 Phrase Structure (Phrasal Category) Word category=Phrasal category (N=NP, V=VP, AJ=AJP, AV=AVP, P=PP) Components of Phrase structure =Specifier-Head-Complement (SHC) a. Head the obligatory element of a phrase (N/V/A/P) b. Specifier -semantically, makes the meaning of the head more precise; -syntactically, it is attached at the top level of the structure, to the left of the head.(det for N/Qual for V and Deg for A/P) c. Complements -to complete the meaning of the head; it is attached the right of the head.
PossibleOrganizationsof phrase structures a. Only head phrase Example: NP He likes books. VP -All animals eat. AP She is certain. PP He went in. b. Specifier and head phrase Example: NP The man is tall. VP Non living things never die. AP The boy is very tall. PP He was almost in.
c. Head and complement phrase Example: NP -King of the country declared war. VP The man killed the lion. AP He is certain about the incident. PP I am in a class. d. specifier-head-complement phrase Example: NP The king of the country declared war. VP He never eat a hamburger. AP I was quite certain about Mary. PP He was almost in the house.
Phrase Structure Rule (PSR) for the different types of phrases 1. PSR of Noun Phrase (NP) a. Boys like basketball games. b. The Boys like basketball games. c. Tall Boys like basketball games. d. The tall bays like basketball games. NP-----(Det) (AP) N
PSR of Noun Phrase (NP) a. Boys from this school like basketball games. b. Boys who are tall tend to like basketball games. c. Boys from this school who are tall tend to like basketball games. NP-----N (PP) (S)
a. The king of England had unhappy life. b. The young king of England had unhappy life. c. The young king who gave up his throne had unhappy life. d. The king of England who gave up his throne had unhappy life. NP----- (Det) (AP) N (PP) (S) =This rule tells us the possible order and elements of a noun phrase. Exercise: rewrite all the possible PSRs of NP.
1. Verb Phrase (VP) a. John died. ( VP---V) b. John saw Bill. (VP---V NP) c. John lived in USA. (VP---V PP) d. John thought Bill kicked the bucket. (VP---V S) e. John gave the boy a nice gift. (VP---V NP NP) f. John put the book on the table. (VP---V NP PP) g. John told the little boy he won a prize. (VP---V NP S) NP =VP V (NP) PP S
3. Prepositional Phrases (PP) a. The train pulled in. (PP---P) b. John lived in the garage. (PP---P NP) =PP --------P (NP) 4. Adjective Phrase Eg. Good, very good, extremely young, quite certain about; =AP --------(deg) A (PP)
Phrase Structure Rules NP------(spec) N (comp) VP------(spec) V (comp) PP------(spec) P (comp) AP------(spec) A (comp) AdvP------(spec) Adv (comp) The XP Rule XP------ (spec) X(comp)
5. Sentence a. Traditional view of sentences =S -------- NP VP E.G. A scientist discovered the answer. b. Contemporary view of sentences =S =IP-------- NP Aux VP =Aux--------Tense (Modal) (Perf) (Prog) E.G. A scientist discovered the answer.
6. Coordinate Structure Properties of coordinate structure 1. There is nolimit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction. Eg. I bought a book, a pencil, an eraser and a pen. 2. A category at any level (a head or an entire phrase) can be coordinated. Eg. Book and magazine/ up and down (head)
3. Coordinated categories must be of the sametype. -NP and NP/VP and VP--- 4. The category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of the elements being conjoined. =VP-----VP and VP =NP-----NP and NP =PP-----PP and PP Eg. John ran up the mountain and down the river. PP-----PP conj PP X------X ((Conj) )Conj X (X can be word level or phrasal level)
Structural Ambiguity A word may have more than one meaning, so that such a word is ambiguous. Eg. I got a mouse (ambiguous) today. The different meanings of an ambiguous word can be determine in context of use. A structure may also have more than one meaning, so that such a structure is ambiguous structure. The different meanings of ambiguous structures can be determined by using different structures in a tree diagram.
Example of structural ambiguity 1. The old man and woman 2. The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive. (use verb to be and tag question to see the two meanings) a. The mother of the boy and the girl is arriving. b. The mother of the boy and the girl are arriving. c. The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive, wont she? d. The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive, wont they?
The boy saw the man with the telescope S NP VP Det N V NP PP Det N P NP Det N The boy saw the man with the telescope Write the Meaning of this structure. 26
The boy saw the man with the telescope S NP VP Det NP N V Det N PP P NP Det N The boy saw the man with the telescope Write the Meaning of this structure. 27
7. Embedded Structures -we discussed simple sentences, conjoined sentences and embedded clauses/sentences. Eg. a) John told the little boy he won a prize. b) The man who was mixing it fell into the cement. -However, there are other embedded structures that our PSR cannot generate. -We find embedded clauses preceded by elements like, that, if, whether, for a. I know that she won the grand prize. b. I wonder if she won the grand prize. c. John and Bill asked whether we would meet them. d. I prefer for you to tell me the truth. that, if, whether and for function to introduce sentential complement. Thus, these elements are complmentizers.
The use of complmentizer is also seen with a clause embedded within NP. EG. a. We believe the claim that the chicken existed before the egg. b. I like the book which she bought at the newsstand. How can we amend the PSR to accommodate sentential complements? Look at the relationships of a complmentizer with the rest of the sentence. There is evidence that the complmentizer forms a constituent with the embedded S in each case, since the string Complmentizer+S passes at least one test of constituency:
Eg. a. That she won the grand prize, I know. (movement) b. The theory that you developed and that your friends believe won t hold much water. (coordination) c. The theory you developed won t hold much water. (embedded clause without complmentizer) -complmentizers are optionals. S -----(Comp) S Comp-----that, whether, if, for, which, why,
Revise the PSRs of NP, VP and S; PSR of NP and VP: NP------ a. pronoun b. (Det) (AP) N (PP) (S ) NP VP-------V (NP) PP S
Revised rule for S=IP EG. a. That he won the grand prize surprises me. b. Why he left puzzles me. NP S-------- S (AUX) VP AUX----- Inf Modal (Perf) (Prog) Comp----C S =CP-----(C) S
Deep Structure vs. Surface Structure Deep Structure = PSR + Lexicon Surface Structure =TR TR=Affix Hopping/Subject Auxiliary Inversion/Do-support/Wh-movement
1. Affix Hopping=for Declarative sentences Affix hopping-the process of attaching an affix to a verbal element. -when you have an affix in the P-marker immediately followed by auxiliary or verbal element, attach the affix to the immediately following element as a suffix. AUX---Tns (Modal) (Perf) (Prog) Modal---will/may/can Perf------have/has Prog----be/-ing Eg. John would be singing. (How is it derived?) Lexicon+PSR =John ed will be ing sing=DS TR/Affix Hopping =John will+ed be sing+ing = =John would be singing=SS
2. Subject Auxiliary Inversion=for Yes/No Questions -Invert the subject and the auxiliary position; -Bring the auxiliary before the subject; Eg. John will see Bill tomorrow. What will be the Yes/No question?
3. Do-Support=for Yes/No question -The rule says, insert verb to do immediately after the tense affix to support that affix; -insertion of verb to do in order to support the process of Yes/No question formation when there is no auxiliary element in the declarative sentence. Eg. Mary loves John. Lexicon+PSR=Mary es love John.=DS SAI=es Mary love John.= Intermediate structure Do-Support=es do Mary love John. =Inter. structure Affix Hopping=do+es Mary love John. Does Mary love John?=SS -The order of transformational rules= SAI Do-Support Affix Hopping
Rule of Passive formation Eg. John cheated Bill=Bill was cheated (by John) Rules/Operations a. Remove the subject of the active sentence from the subjectposition and make it an optional PP at the end of the sentence; b. Move the object to the vacatedsubjectposition; c. Insert the passive-morpheme that consists of the sequence be-en (verb to be and past participle), as the rightmost element of auxiliary before VP;
Eg. =DS of the active=John ed cheat Bill. =Remove the subject=ed cheat Bill (by John) = Move the object=Bill ed cheat (by John) =Insert passive morpheme=Bill ed be-en cheat (by John) = Affix Hopping=Bill be+ed cheat+en (by John) = SS of passive=Bill was cheated (by John) =The meaning of the active and passive are the same because both are derived from the same DS. =Active and passive are synonyms/paraphrases =phoneme/allophones, morpheme/allomorphs, D-S/SSs
4. Wh-question/information/content question -Move a wh-word to the beginning of the sentence; Eg. John bought a book.=What did john buy? -John ed buy a book=DS -John ed buy what=information missing -What John ed buy---- wh-movement triggered by Q morpheme -What ed John buy SAI -What ed do John buy---Do-Support -What do+ed John buy Affix Hopping -What did John buy?=SS
5. Negativeformation= place the negative element (not) after auxiliary; Eg. John did not come yesterday. -John ed come yesterday= DS -John ed not come yesterday= placement of Negative -John ed do not come yesterday= Do-Support -John do+ed not come yesterday= Affix Hopping -John did not come yesterday= SS
