Muslim Americans at the Intersection of Religious Freedom and Racial Justice
This research explores how Muslims in America face discrimination post-9/11, leading to the racialization of their religion. It delves into how the intersection of race and religion shapes the social construction of the "Racial Muslim," marginalized from the realm of religious freedom into a subordinated racial category.
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Muslim Americans at the Intersection of Religious Freedom and Racial Justice Sahar F. Aziz Professor of Law Texas A&M University School of Law @saharazizlaw
Overarching Research Questions How do Muslims contemporary post-9/11 experiences of discrimination inform the racialization of religion in America? More specifically how the interaction between religion and race contributes the social construction of race in America and by extension the social construction of the Racial Muslim? 2
Thesis Muslims have become socially constructed as a racial group and Islam is viewed as a violent political ideology, thereby purging Muslims from the privileged realm of religious freedom and into the subordinated realm of race. Islam is racialized as "foreign, dangerous, violent, terrorist" as opposed to treated as a religion deserving of legal protection in accordance with the Constitution and statutory law Religion Ideology Race 3
Premise Race is socially constructed Races is a master category in US Shapes history, polity, economic structures, and culture Othering justifies subordinate status, unequal treatment, and structural oppression Racialization produces subordination in the American context 4
Premise Religion is privileged over race in law and normatively in society Religion historically has been raced in the US Religious subordination is as much a part of American history as is racial subordination albeit in different forms, affecting different groups uniquely Racialization of Religion traits of an ethnic or racial group associated with a religion 5
Outline Manifest Destiny and Racial Subordination Mass Immigration of Irish, Italians, and Eastern European Asian Exclusion Laws Racialization of Islam and Construction of the Racial Muslim
Manifest Destiny & Racial Subordination Christian Protestantism is a Civilizing Force Christianity is legitimate, a universal truth Other faiths illegitimate Conquering Native Americans Enslaving Africans Heathens, Barbaric, Savage, Uncivilized, Godless To be American is to be White and Christian Protestant Christian Normalcy
Mass Immigration of Irish, Italian, and Eastern Europeans Inferior Whites Eugenics, Phenology, Physiology Uncivilized, primitive, dark-skinned Suspect loyalties Catholic Pope Anti-Democratic, Illiberal Rise of American (White Protestant) Nativism
Asian Exclusion Immigration Laws of 1790 & 1924 Must be White to be a citizen Godless Suspect loyalties, duplicitous, secretive Anti-Democratic, Illiberal
The Mormon Menace Inferior Whites Degenerate Heretic, Uncivilized Disloyal Prophet Joseph Smith Indian Lovers Intermarriage with Native Americans Misogynist and Polygamous
The Jewish Conspiracy Not White because not Christian Clannish, separatist Canny, duplicitous Greedy Untrustworthy, Killed Jesus
The Muslim Threat Heathen, barbaric, violent, uncivilized, irrational Exotic Disloyal and suspicious Anti-Democratic/Illiberal Misogynist Arabs, Palestinians equated with Islam Religionization of Race Theologically, morally, and socially illegitimate
Theorizing Racialization of Religion Religion * Quasi-Mutable * Holy, Sacred * Formal & substantive legal protection * Normatively privileged * Protestant Christian Post-9/11 Discrimination Race Political Ideology * Immutable * Mutable * Phenotype, Skin Color, Hair Texture * Qualified legal protection (free speech) * Good or Evil With Us or Against Us * Socially constructed * National security * Formal legal protection * Militarized responses * Normatively suspect * Capitalism and Political Liberalism * Northern European White 13
The Social Construction of the Racial Muslim Religious Hierarchy Religious Subordination Racial Hierarchy Racial Subordination Orientalism Empire in MENA Geopolitics Social Construction of the Racial Muslim Crusades Against Muslims Jersusalem Palestine Military Industrial Complex US History of Anti- Immigrant; Xenophobia 14
The Muslim Menace From Most Dangerous to Least Threatening Political and Religious Muslim Apolitical and Religious Muslim Political and non- Religious Muslim Apolitical & nonreligious Muslim The Former Muslim 15
Racial Projects Subordinating Muslims Racial projects occur both at the government and private level, as well as the collective and individual level. Government Racialized Policies and Practices Religious and racial profiling Absconder immigration enforcement program NSEERs Special Registration Mass government surveillance of Muslim spaces and mosques Informants and Undercover agents actively engaged in sting operations Selective counter-terrorism prosecutions Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) programs Exclusion of Syrian Refugees Special IDs for Muslims (called for by right wing politicians) 16
Racial Projects Subordinating Muslims Private Discrimination Discourse on Islam treats it as a political ideology as opposed to a sacred, monotheistic religion Do not receive the dignitary rights as other minority Christian sects and minority religions Politically expedient to be anti-Muslim Anti-mosque campaigns Anti-Sharia campaigns Anti-Islam billboards campaign Harassment in the workplace Bullying of Muslim children in schools Assaults of Muslim women wearing headscarf To be accused of being a Muslim president equates to disloyalty and illegitimacy 17
Broader Questions for the Future Impact of executive policies and societal biases on courts and legal jurisprudence Will Muslims eventually become White like Jews, Catholics, Mormons, Italians, Irish, and Eastern Europeans? Role of international events and de facto citizenship status Is America Post-Racial and Colorbline
