Muslim Americans at the Intersection of Religious Freedom and Racial Justice

 
Muslim Americans at the
Intersection of Religious
Freedom and Racial Justice
 
Sahar F. Aziz
Professor of Law
Texas A&M University School of Law
@saharazizlaw
 
Overarching Research Questions
 
How do Muslims’ contemporary post-9/11
experiences of discrimination inform the
racialization of religion in America?
More specifically how the interaction between
religion and race contributes the social
construction of race in America and by
extension the social construction of the “Racial
Muslim?”
 
 
 
2
 
Thesis
 
Muslims have become socially constructed as a racial
group and Islam is viewed as a violent political
ideology, thereby purging Muslims from the
privileged realm of religious freedom and into the
subordinated realm of race.
Islam is racialized as "foreign, dangerous, violent,
terrorist" as opposed to treated as a religion
deserving of legal protection in accordance with the
Constitution and statutory law
Religion 
 Ideology 
 Race
 
 
3
 
Premise
 
Race is socially constructed
Races is a master category in US
Shapes history, polity, economic structures, and
culture
“Othering” justifies subordinate status,
unequal treatment, and structural oppression
Racialization produces subordination in the
American context
 
 
4
 
Premise
 
Religion is privileged over race in law and
normatively in society
Religion historically has been raced in the US
Religious subordination is as much a part of
American history as is racial subordination
albeit in different forms, affecting different
groups uniquely
Racialization of Religion – traits of an ethnic or
racial group associated with a religion
 
 
5
 
Outline
 
Manifest Destiny and Racial Subordination
Mass Immigration of Irish, Italians, and
Eastern European
Asian Exclusion Laws
Racialization of Islam and Construction of the
“Racial Muslim”
 
Manifest Destiny &
Racial Subordination
 
Christian Protestantism is a Civilizing Force
Christianity is legitimate, a universal truth
Other faiths illegitimate
Conquering Native Americans
Enslaving Africans
Heathens, Barbaric, Savage, Uncivilized, Godless
To be “American” is to be “White” and Christian
Protestant
Christian Normalcy
 
Mass Immigration of Irish,
Italian, and Eastern Europeans
 
Inferior Whites
Eugenics, Phenology, Physiology
Uncivilized, primitive, dark-skinned
Suspect loyalties
Catholic Pope
Anti-Democratic, Illiberal
Rise of American (White Protestant) Nativism
 
Asian Exclusion
 
Immigration Laws of 1790 & 1924
Must be “White” to be a citizen
Godless
Suspect loyalties, duplicitous, secretive
Anti-Democratic, Illiberal
 
The Mormon Menace
 
Inferior Whites
Degenerate
Heretic, Uncivilized
Disloyal
Prophet Joseph Smith
Indian Lovers
Intermarriage with Native Americans
Misogynist and Polygamous
 
 
The Jewish Conspiracy
 
Not White because not Christian
Clannish, separatist
Canny, duplicitous
Greedy
Untrustworthy, Killed Jesus
 
The Muslim Threat
 
Heathen, barbaric, violent, uncivilized,
irrational
Exotic
Disloyal and suspicious
Anti-Democratic/Illiberal
Misogynist
Arabs, Palestinians equated with Islam
Religionization of Race
Theologically, morally, and socially illegitimate
 
Theorizing Racialization of Religion
 
13
 
The Social Construction of the “Racial Muslim
 
14
 
The Muslim Menace
From Most Dangerous to Least Threatening
 
15
 
Racial Projects
Subordinating Muslims
 
Racial projects occur both at the government and private level, as well as the
collective and individual level.
Government Racialized Policies and Practices
Religious and racial profiling
Absconder immigration enforcement program
NSEERs – Special Registration
Mass government surveillance of Muslim spaces and mosques
Informants and Undercover agents actively engaged in sting operations
Selective counter-terrorism prosecutions
Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) programs
Exclusion of Syrian Refugees
Special IDs for Muslims (called for by right wing politicians)
 
 
16
 
Racial Projects
Subordinating Muslims
 
Private Discrimination
Discourse on Islam treats it as a political ideology as opposed to a sacred,
monotheistic religion
Do not receive the dignitary rights as other minority Christian sects and
minority religions
Politically expedient to be anti-Muslim
Anti-mosque campaigns
Anti-Sharia campaigns
Anti-Islam billboards campaign
Harassment in the workplace
Bullying of Muslim children in schools
Assaults of Muslim women wearing headscarf
To be accused of being a Muslim president equates to disloyalty and
illegitimacy
 
 
17
 
Broader Questions for the Future
 
Impact of executive policies and societal
biases on courts and legal jurisprudence
Will Muslims eventually “become White” like
Jews, Catholics, Mormons, Italians, Irish, and
Eastern Europeans?
Role of international events and de facto
citizenship status
Is America Post-Racial and Colorbline
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This research explores how Muslims in America face discrimination post-9/11, leading to the racialization of their religion. It delves into how the intersection of race and religion shapes the social construction of the "Racial Muslim," marginalized from the realm of religious freedom into a subordinated racial category.


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  1. Muslim Americans at the Intersection of Religious Freedom and Racial Justice Sahar F. Aziz Professor of Law Texas A&M University School of Law @saharazizlaw

  2. Overarching Research Questions How do Muslims contemporary post-9/11 experiences of discrimination inform the racialization of religion in America? More specifically how the interaction between religion and race contributes the social construction of race in America and by extension the social construction of the Racial Muslim? 2

  3. Thesis Muslims have become socially constructed as a racial group and Islam is viewed as a violent political ideology, thereby purging Muslims from the privileged realm of religious freedom and into the subordinated realm of race. Islam is racialized as "foreign, dangerous, violent, terrorist" as opposed to treated as a religion deserving of legal protection in accordance with the Constitution and statutory law Religion Ideology Race 3

  4. Premise Race is socially constructed Races is a master category in US Shapes history, polity, economic structures, and culture Othering justifies subordinate status, unequal treatment, and structural oppression Racialization produces subordination in the American context 4

  5. Premise Religion is privileged over race in law and normatively in society Religion historically has been raced in the US Religious subordination is as much a part of American history as is racial subordination albeit in different forms, affecting different groups uniquely Racialization of Religion traits of an ethnic or racial group associated with a religion 5

  6. Outline Manifest Destiny and Racial Subordination Mass Immigration of Irish, Italians, and Eastern European Asian Exclusion Laws Racialization of Islam and Construction of the Racial Muslim

  7. Manifest Destiny & Racial Subordination Christian Protestantism is a Civilizing Force Christianity is legitimate, a universal truth Other faiths illegitimate Conquering Native Americans Enslaving Africans Heathens, Barbaric, Savage, Uncivilized, Godless To be American is to be White and Christian Protestant Christian Normalcy

  8. Mass Immigration of Irish, Italian, and Eastern Europeans Inferior Whites Eugenics, Phenology, Physiology Uncivilized, primitive, dark-skinned Suspect loyalties Catholic Pope Anti-Democratic, Illiberal Rise of American (White Protestant) Nativism

  9. Asian Exclusion Immigration Laws of 1790 & 1924 Must be White to be a citizen Godless Suspect loyalties, duplicitous, secretive Anti-Democratic, Illiberal

  10. The Mormon Menace Inferior Whites Degenerate Heretic, Uncivilized Disloyal Prophet Joseph Smith Indian Lovers Intermarriage with Native Americans Misogynist and Polygamous

  11. The Jewish Conspiracy Not White because not Christian Clannish, separatist Canny, duplicitous Greedy Untrustworthy, Killed Jesus

  12. The Muslim Threat Heathen, barbaric, violent, uncivilized, irrational Exotic Disloyal and suspicious Anti-Democratic/Illiberal Misogynist Arabs, Palestinians equated with Islam Religionization of Race Theologically, morally, and socially illegitimate

  13. Theorizing Racialization of Religion Religion * Quasi-Mutable * Holy, Sacred * Formal & substantive legal protection * Normatively privileged * Protestant Christian Post-9/11 Discrimination Race Political Ideology * Immutable * Mutable * Phenotype, Skin Color, Hair Texture * Qualified legal protection (free speech) * Good or Evil With Us or Against Us * Socially constructed * National security * Formal legal protection * Militarized responses * Normatively suspect * Capitalism and Political Liberalism * Northern European White 13

  14. The Social Construction of the Racial Muslim Religious Hierarchy Religious Subordination Racial Hierarchy Racial Subordination Orientalism Empire in MENA Geopolitics Social Construction of the Racial Muslim Crusades Against Muslims Jersusalem Palestine Military Industrial Complex US History of Anti- Immigrant; Xenophobia 14

  15. The Muslim Menace From Most Dangerous to Least Threatening Political and Religious Muslim Apolitical and Religious Muslim Political and non- Religious Muslim Apolitical & nonreligious Muslim The Former Muslim 15

  16. Racial Projects Subordinating Muslims Racial projects occur both at the government and private level, as well as the collective and individual level. Government Racialized Policies and Practices Religious and racial profiling Absconder immigration enforcement program NSEERs Special Registration Mass government surveillance of Muslim spaces and mosques Informants and Undercover agents actively engaged in sting operations Selective counter-terrorism prosecutions Countering Violent Extremism (CVE) programs Exclusion of Syrian Refugees Special IDs for Muslims (called for by right wing politicians) 16

  17. Racial Projects Subordinating Muslims Private Discrimination Discourse on Islam treats it as a political ideology as opposed to a sacred, monotheistic religion Do not receive the dignitary rights as other minority Christian sects and minority religions Politically expedient to be anti-Muslim Anti-mosque campaigns Anti-Sharia campaigns Anti-Islam billboards campaign Harassment in the workplace Bullying of Muslim children in schools Assaults of Muslim women wearing headscarf To be accused of being a Muslim president equates to disloyalty and illegitimacy 17

  18. Broader Questions for the Future Impact of executive policies and societal biases on courts and legal jurisprudence Will Muslims eventually become White like Jews, Catholics, Mormons, Italians, Irish, and Eastern Europeans? Role of international events and de facto citizenship status Is America Post-Racial and Colorbline

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