Logic and Critical Reasoning: Identifying Arguments
Logic & Critical Reasoning
Identifying arguments
The Object of Analysis
•
In logic and critical reasoning one studies
argumentation. From the perspective of critical
reasoning an
argument
is specific kind of object of
analysis.
•
An argument is
not
the same thing as a disagreement.
•
An argument has parts.
Definition of an Argument
•
An
argument
is a non-empty set of claims some of
which are intended to support a single claim.
•
The claims that do the
supporting
are called the
premises
.
•
The claim that is
supported
is called the
conclusion.
Argument Structure
•
Arguments have structure.
•
Atomic arguments have a single set of premises
intended to establish a single conclusion.
•
Complex arguments use multiple atomic arguments to
establish either a single conclusion or multiple
conclusions.
The Two Central Claims of an Argument
•
An
argument
makes two central claims:
•
The
factual claim
is that the premises are true.
•
The
inferential claim
is that the premises support the
conclusion.
Two Types of Support
•
Deductive
support occurs
when the author of the
argument intends it to be
the case that the truth of
the premises makes it the
case that the conclusion
could not be false.
•
True premises necessitate
a true conclusion
•
Inductive
support occurs
when the author of the
argument intends it to be
the case that the truth of
the premises makes the
conclusion likely to be
true.
•
True premises makes the
conclusion probable.
Identifying arguments I
•
The first key task of critical thinking is to identify
when an argument is present in speech and writing.
•
There are two main techniques for identifying
arguments are:
•
Using indicators phrases as a way to find parts of an
argument.
•
Learning to distinguish argument-like passages from
actual argument passages.
Indicators
•
Premise
indicators:
•
Since
•
Given that
•
For
•
Because
•
For the reason that
•
In view of the fact that
•
Granted that
•
Seeing that
•
Conclusion
indicators
•
Therefore
•
Thus
•
Hence
•
Consequently
•
It follows that
•
Which proves that
•
So
Distinguishing Arguments from Non-Arguments
•
Some passages look like they contain an argument,
when they do not actually contain an argument.
•
Sometimes this is the case
because
a premise or
conclusion indicator is present even though it is not
signaling the presence of what it is generally intended
to signal – a premise or a conclusion.
Reports
•
Reports
are passages in which the primary function is
to report what a person said. Since the primary goal of
the passage is to report what someone said, reports are
not arguments.
•
The primary goal of an argument is to establish the
truth of a claim by providing reasons to believe the
claim.
•
A report can be a premise or a conclusion, but alone a
report is
not
an argument.
Report: Example
•
The New York Times reports that the CEO of British
Petroleum has argued that because of the Deepwater
Disaster, it can no longer supply funds to the locals
that live on the Gulf Coast.
•
Although the premise indicator ‘because’ is present,
since the passage in which it occurs is a report, the
New York Times is not making an argument.
Explanation
•
An
explanation
is a passage in which a given
phenomenon is taken to be true and one offers an
account of
why
the phenomenon exists.
•
Explanations can be distinguished from arguments via
the why-test.
•
If the authors primary aim is to say
why
something is
true, then the passage is an explanation.
•
If the authors primary aim is to establish
that
something
is true, then the passage is an argument.
Explanation: Example
•
Because the refraction of light depends on the medium
through which it is traveling our experience of what an
oar placed in water looks like, is different than what is
actually present. We see an object, such as an oar or a
pencil, submerged in water as slightly bent, when in
fact it is not actually bent. We see it as bent because
light traveling through the water to our retina is
refracted off of the water.
•
Although ‘because’ is present, there is no argument.
The author intends to say
why
something is the case.
Illustration
•
An
illustration
is a passage in which some
phenomenon is illustrated through an example.
•
Illustration passages often contain the words ‘so’ and
‘thus’ as a way to mark the example to follow.
•
Often in an illustration an example is used to illustrate
a general principle.
Illustration: Example
•
Chlorides dissolve in Water, for example, salt is a
chloride and it dissolves in water.
•
In an illustration often times a conclusion indicator is
used to signal that something is an example of a
general principle.
•
Key words to look for: For example, So,
In the study of logic and critical reasoning, identifying arguments is a fundamental task. Arguments consist of premises supporting a conclusion, and they can be identified by specific indicators and techniques. Understanding argument structure and types of support, such as deductive and inductive, is essential in analyzing and evaluating arguments effectively.
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Presentation Transcript
Logic & Critical Reasoning Identifying arguments
The Object of Analysis In logic and critical reasoning one studies argumentation. From the perspective of critical reasoning an argument is specific kind of object of analysis. An argument is not the same thing as a disagreement. An argument has parts.
Definition of an Argument An argument is a non-empty set of claims some of which are intended to support a single claim. The claims that do the supporting are called the premises. The claim that is supported is called the conclusion.
Argument Structure Arguments have structure. Atomic arguments have a single set of premises intended to establish a single conclusion. Complex arguments use multiple atomic arguments to establish either a single conclusion or multiple conclusions.
The Two Central Claims of an Argument An argument makes two central claims: The factual claim is that the premises are true. The inferential claim is that the premises support the conclusion.
Two Types of Support Deductive support occurs when the author of the argument intends it to be the case that the truth of the premises makes it the case that the conclusion could not be false. Inductive support occurs when the author of the argument intends it to be the case that the truth of the premises makes the conclusion likely to be true. True premises necessitate a true conclusion True premises makes the conclusion probable.
Identifying arguments I The first key task of critical thinking is to identify when an argument is present in speech and writing. There are two main techniques for identifying arguments are: Using indicators phrases as a way to find parts of an argument. Learning to distinguish argument-like passages from actual argument passages.
Indicators Premise indicators: Since Given that For Because For the reason that In view of the fact that Granted that Seeing that Conclusion indicators Therefore Thus Hence Consequently It follows that Which proves that So
Distinguishing Arguments from Non-Arguments Some passages look like they contain an argument, when they do not actually contain an argument. Sometimes this is the case because a premise or conclusion indicator is present even though it is not signaling the presence of what it is generally intended to signal a premise or a conclusion.
Reports Reports are passages in which the primary function is to report what a person said. Since the primary goal of the passage is to report what someone said, reports are not arguments. The primary goal of an argument is to establish the truth of a claim by providing reasons to believe the claim. A report can be a premise or a conclusion, but alone a report is not an argument.
Report: Example The New York Times reports that the CEO of British Petroleum has argued that because of the Deepwater Disaster, it can no longer supply funds to the locals that live on the Gulf Coast. Although the premise indicator because is present, since the passage in which it occurs is a report, the New York Times is not making an argument.
Explanation An explanation is a passage in which a given phenomenon is taken to be true and one offers an account of why the phenomenon exists. Explanations can be distinguished from arguments via the why-test. If the authors primary aim is to say why something is true, then the passage is an explanation. If the authors primary aim is to establish that something is true, then the passage is an argument.
Explanation: Example Because the refraction of light depends on the medium through which it is traveling our experience of what an oar placed in water looks like, is different than what is actually present. We see an object, such as an oar or a pencil, submerged in water as slightly bent, when in fact it is not actually bent. We see it as bent because light traveling through the water to our retina is refracted off of the water. Although because is present, there is no argument. The author intends to say why something is the case.
Illustration An illustration is a passage in which some phenomenon is illustrated through an example. Illustration passages often contain the words so and thus as a way to mark the example to follow. Often in an illustration an example is used to illustrate a general principle.
Illustration: Example Chlorides dissolve in Water, for example, salt is a chloride and it dissolves in water. In an illustration often times a conclusion indicator is used to signal that something is an example of a general principle. Key words to look for: For example, So,
