English Dialects and Accents

ENGLISH DIALECTS AND ACCENTS

Hughes A., Trudgill P.

,

English Accents and Dialects 

(An Introduction to Social and Regional Varieties of

English in the British Isles)

, Fourth Edition

; Hodder

Arnold: 2005

VARIETIES OF ENGLISH

•

 historical

•

 regional

•

 social

•

stylistic

variability of 

lexis, grammar, pronunciation…

DIALECT  

or

  ACCENT

 ?

dialect –  common lexical, grammatical, phonetic features

accent – common phonetic features

social

variation

regional variation

standard

S

O

C

I

O

L

E

C

T

S

REGIONAL DIALECTS

Regional vs. social variability:

Example: 

h-dropping 

in 

West Yorkshire

:

Upper-middle class:   12%

Lower-middle class:   28%

Upper working class:  67%

Middle working class: 89%

Lower working class:   93%

The lower the social class, the stronger the traits of the

regional accent

Variability within Standard English:

REGIONAL VARIETIES OF BRITISH ENGLISH

Social prestige of regional dialects

 depends

on the relative social/economic/political power of their speakers

RP: received pronunciation “accepted in the best society” – 19th century

(Queen’s English, BBC English):  only 3-5 % of speakers today

Estuary English – perhaps the most prestigious regional accent today,

but the popularity of individual accents may be affected by

the entertainment business (movies, pop culture etc.)

http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail/article-2266574/Shut-UP-The-Essex-accent-revealed-worst-Britain-women7-admit-swooning-soft-Irish-twang.html

GRAMMATICAL VARIATION ACROSS REGIONS

GRAMMATICAL VARIATION ACROSS REGIONS

Nouns 

-

unmarked plurality in nouns of measurements:

a hundred pound, five foot 

(even in colloquial SE)

GRAMMATICAL VARIATION ACROSS REGIONS

Nouns 

-

unmarked plurality in nouns of measurements:

a hundred pound, five foot 

(even in colloquial SE)

Pronouns

us

 – objective case of I (north-eastern England, Scotland)

GRAMMATICAL VARIATION ACROSS REGIONS

Nouns

-

unmarked plurality in nouns of measurements:

a hundred pound, five foot 

(even in colloquial SE)

Pronouns

us

 – objective case of I (north-eastern England, Scotland)

Give us a kiss…

historical forms for the 2

nd

 person singular still in use:

thou, thee, thy, thine 

(north of England, rural south-west)

thou, thee = tha 

(north of England)

tha cast = 

‘you can’

 (

cast – 

the “old” form for the 2

nd

 p. sg. < 

canst

)

Some varieties 

(

S

outh-

W

est England: Devon, Somerset)

contrast

strong 

and

weak 

pronouns (accented : unaccented) 

rather than common case and objective case forms of pronouns

strong

weak

you 

ee

he

er (subject), ‘n (object)

she

er

we

us

they

‘m

We wouldn’t do it, would us?

Give ‘n to she.

Mass nouns 

 may be 

referred as 

it, 

countable nouns as 

he, er, ‘n

Pass me the bread. It’s on the table.

Pass me the loaf. He’s on the table. 

Reflexive pronouns

(in many non-standard dialects):

myself

herself

yourself

itself

hisself

ourselves

theirselves

Note: Initially, all reflexive pronouns consisted of the personal

pronoun and 

self. 

The combination of  possessives and 

self 

is of a

later date, as is the plural marking of  

selves 

(

self 

used to be an

adjective and not a noun). In SE, the substitution of new forms has

not spread to the 3

rd

 person, in regional varieties it has. 

Demonstratives

north of England, Scotland: three-way demonstratives

close to the speaker: 

this

these (NE)

thir (Sc)

close to the addressee: 

that

them

they, thae

distant from both: 

yon

yon

yon, thon

Relative pronouns

That was the man 

what

 done it. 

(particularly common)

That was the man 

which

 done it. 

That was the man 

as

 done it.

That was the man 

at

 done it.

That was the man done it.

That is the man what his son done it.

Comparison of adjectives

: 

She’s more rougher than he is. 

He’ s the most toughest bloke I’ve met. 

You ought to be carefuller in future.

Note: Double comparative/superlative marking common in Shakespeare.

Adverbs

He ran slow.

She spoke very clever. 

They done it very nice. 

Note: The original adverbial suffix was –e, which was dropped in Middle English 

and later replaced with –ly.

Verbs

Irregular verbs: reduction of forms, regularization of verbs

Verbs

Irregular verbs: reduction of forms, regularization of verbs

(The process started in Middle English, but was “interrupted” in the 18

th

century, when English got its standard form with the first dictionaries and 

grammar books).

see – seen – seen 

 or 

see – see – seen

give – give – give

come – come – come

go – went – went

write – writ – writ 

draw – drawed - drawed

Present Tense forms: the ending –s either missing or generalized:

He don’t like it.  (

East Anglia, American, Caribbean)

He don’t like it.  (

East Anglia, American, Caribbean)

We goes home.  

(north of England, south-west, South Wales)

Scotland, Northern Ireland – present : historical present

I go home every day.

I goes down the street. I sees this man.

N

e

g

a

t

i

o

n

•

m

u

l

t

i

p

l

e

n

e

g

a

t

i

o

n

=

n

e

g

a

t

i

v

e

c

o

n

c

o

r

d

in most parts of the British Isles:

I didn’t have no dinner. 

•

a

i

n

’

t

[

e

ɪ

n

t

,

ɛ

n

t

,

ɪ

n

t

]

very common, but not throughout Britain

= am not, is not, are not, have/has not < amn’t

I ain’t coming.  I ain’t done it.

n

o

,

n

a

e

,

n

a

f

o

r

n

o

t

(

S

c

o

t

l

a

n

d

)

:

He’s no coming.

I’ve nae got it.

I cannae go.

We do na have one.

•

n

e

v

e

r

a

s

p

a

s

t

t

e

n

s

e

n

e

g

a

t

i

v

e

:

In most parts of British Isles

AUXLIARIES

•

h

a

v

e

stative : dynamic use 

SE:  

I haven’t any money.

I didn’t have coffee with my breakfast.

AE: 

I don’t have any money. I didn’t have coffee with my breakfast,

ScE: 

I haven’t any money. I hadn’t coffee with my breakfast.

American, British English:  have > have got (informal)

Younger speakers > no distinction between stative and dynamic 

have:

Have you got any money?  

(informal)

Have you any money?

(formal, older speakers)

Do you have any money?

(younger speakers)

•

 do 

Full verb, auxiliary function

SE: 

do

did

done

Most non-standard d’s:

do 

did  

(auxiliary)

do 

done 

done 

(full verb)

You done lots of work, didn’t you?  I did. I done it last night.

•

  be

North-eastern England: 

is 

for all persons:  

I is...

Parts of West-Midland: 

am 

for all persons: 

 You am...

South-western England: 

be 

for all persons

•

woz 

for all persons; 

You woz...

•

 modal auxiliaries

must

SE, southern English:

a)

deontic: 

He must do it.

He mustn’t do it.

He has to do it.

He doesn’t have to do it.

He’s got to do it.

He hasn’t got to do it.

b)

epistemic: 

He must have  seen it.

He can’t have seen it.

Northern English epistemic: 

He mustn’t be in. 

Younger speakers:  

ought (to), used (to) 

 with 

do

They didn’t used to go. (= They used not to go).

He doesn’t ought to go. (= He ought not to go)

QUESTION TAGS:

•

 north-eastern Scotland:  same polarity tags:

It’ s a fine day, is it?

•

 the use of 

innit

 as a general tag (marked as slang)

Contracted forms: 

South of England:

I haven’t got it.

She won’t go.

Doesn’t she like it?

North of England:

I’ve not got it.

She’ll not go.

Does she not like it?

word order

SE: 

She gave the man a book.

She gave him it.

She gave him the book.

She gave the book to the man.

She gave it to him.

South of England:

to – prefered if DO is a pronoun

North of England: 

She gave it him 

(acceptable in the south)

She gave it the man 

(not found in the south)

PRONUNCIATION

VARIABILITY: within RP, regional

RP: 

older speakers : younger speakers

social classes

acquisition of RP

Conservative RP

General RP

Advanced RP

Adoptive RP...

Regional variability:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-8mzWkuOxz8

Main division: 

Southern: (

foot-strut split)

RP, Cockney, Estuary, Kentish, Sussex, Essex...

South-West 

(rhotic, no trap-bath split)

East Anglian, South Midland (

no H-dropping, complete yod-dropping)

Northern, Midland, southern Irish:

Geordie, Cumbrian, 

Yorkshire, Lancashirian

Scouse, Brummie, 

Dublin, Cork

Scotland, north of  Ireland:

Glaswegian, Highland, Scots, Ulster English

Wales:

southern, northern

CONSONANTS

•

Post-alveolar approximant /r/

r

h

o

t

i

c

–

n

o

n

-

r

h

o

t

i

c

a

c

c

e

n

t

s

rhotic accents – non-prevocalic [

ɹ]

18th c. : NE /r/ > ∅ / _ {C, #}

rhotic: 

General American, Scotland, Ireland, south-western 

England

non-rhotic: 

England, Wales, Australia, New Zealand, southern USA,

New York, New England,South Africa, Caribbean...

r

h

o

t

i

c

a

n

d

n

o

n

-

r

h

o

t

i

c

a

c

c

e

n

t

s

i

n

E

n

g

l

a

n

d

:

1950s

end of 20th c.

r

h

o

t

i

c

a

n

d

n

o

n

-

r

h

o

t

i

c

a

c

c

e

n

t

s

i

n

E

n

g

l

a

n

d

:

1950s

end of 20th c.

many variants of /r/ :

alveolar tap [

ɾ] (Scotland, Wales, northern England)

retloflex approximant [ɻ] (Highland, Ireland)

alveolar trill [r] (Scotland, but rare),

uvular fricative [

ʁ] (rural north-east)

labio-dental [ʋ] in younger speakers in the south of Englands

•

Glottal stop

•

RP speakers:

- Before word-initial vowels

-  before consonants in syllable-final environment:

six [s

ɪʔks] - 

glottalization

- instead of the linking r

- instead of word-final or morpheme-final plosives,

especially if the next consonant has the same place of articulation: -

get down 

[geʔ’daʊn]

Scotland  

[‘skɒʔlənd]

back garden 

[bæʔ’gɑ:dn]

•

M

o

r

e

c

o

m

m

o

n

i

n

r

e

g

i

o

n

a

l

v

a

r

i

e

t

i

e

s

:

- 

as 

allophone of medial and final /t/: 

most frequent 

word finally before a C

that man

before a syllabic n

button

word finally before a V

that apple

before syllabic

 l

bottle

least frequent

medially before a V

better

I

n

c

r

e

a

s

i

n

g

u

s

e

o

f

[

ʔ

]

i

n

s

t

e

a

d

o

f

[

t

]

i

n

y

o

u

n

g

e

r

s

p

e

a

k

e

r

s

i

n

a

l

l

r

e

g

i

o

n

s

Exceptions: 

parts of Wales, northern Scotland

North-eastern England, East Anglia, Northern Ireland, north-eastern Scotland:

g

l

o

t

t

a

l

i

z

a

t

i

o

n

o

f

/

p

,

t

,

k

/

[

‘

f

l

ɪ

p

ʔ

ə

]

•

H

-

d

r

o

p

p

i

n

g

•

H

-

d

r

o

p

p

i

n

g

In many RP speakers  /h/ is mute in initial position in unstressed

pronouns and auxiliaries:

[‘st

ɒpɪm] 

stop  (h)im

H-dropping much more common

in other varieties:

NO H-dropping in Scottish and Irish

accents.

L

a

t

e

r

a

l

/

l

/

clear

/light

 [l] – before vowels and /j/: 

like

dark [ɫ] – before a consonant and syllabically: 

bottle

Voiceless [Ị] – after /p/ and /k/: 

plate, clap

NE: L-vocalization: early process

all, folk, calf, Holmes, chalk...

Some RP speakers use a vowel instead of the dark /l/: 

milk, well

especially common in: Cockney, Estuary English, Manchester,

Bristol...

S

e

m

i

-

v

o

w

e

l

/

j

/

yod-coalescence = merger of /j/ with preceding alveolar plosives to form affricates

dune = June

What you need 

[w

ɒʧʊ’ni:d]

Would you…

[wʊʤʊ]

R

!

:

N

E

[

s

]

+

[

j

]

>

[

ʃ

]

R

u

s

s

i

a

N

E

[

z

]

+

[

j

]

>

[

ʒ

]

p

r

e

c

i

s

i

o

n

N

E

[

t

]

+

[

j

]

>

[

ʧ

]

n

a

t

u

r

e

N

E

[

d

]

+

[

j

]

>

[

ʤ

]

s

o

l

d

i

e

r

A

F

T

E

R

A

C

C

E

N

T

E

D

S

Y

L

L

A

B

L

E

S

yod-dropping

 = loss of /j/ 

In early NE after [r] in most RP (younger) speakers today also after /l/ and /s/ 

rude, Luke, allude, super, suit, suitable…

L

o

n

d

o

n

(

n

o

r

t

h

e

r

n

p

a

r

t

s

)

,

A

m

e

r

i

c

a

n

E

.

:

a

f

t

e

r

a

l

l

a

l

v

e

o

l

a

r

s

:

n

e

w

s

,

d

u

t

y

,

s

t

u

d

e

n

t

…

N

o

r

t

h

o

f

E

n

g

l

a

n

d

:

a

f

t

e

r

[

θ

]

:

e

n

t

h

u

s

i

a

s

t

i

c

E

a

s

t

e

r

n

E

n

g

l

a

n

d

:

a

f

t

e

r

a

l

l

c

o

n

s

o

n

a

n

t

s

b

e

f

o

r

e

[

u

:

]

:

m

u

s

i

c

,

h

u

m

a

n

,

b

e

a

u

t

y

[

ƞ] (“g-dropping”)

Most RP speakers have [n] in –

ing.

Western central England (Manchester, Liverpool, Birmingham): 

singing  

[sɪƞgɪƞg]

VOWELS

[

ʌ

]

:

[

ʊ

]

:

[

u

:

]

The strut-foot split

VOWELS

[

ʌ

]

:

[

ʊ

]

:

[

u

:

]

In western parts [ʌ] realized as [ə].

one, none, tong 

[

ɒ]: much of the north of England

[ʊ] : [u:] 

[ʊ] favoured in the East, [u:] in the west: 

book, room

[

æ

]

:

[

ɑ

:

]

T

h

e

t

r

a

p

-

b

a

t

h

s

p

l

i

t

[

æ

]

:

[

ɑ

:

]

[æ] is [a] in younger RP speakers (lowering of vowels – 

chain shift

)

RP:

•

[æ] 

/ [a]:

pat, cap, land

•

[ɑ:] 

a)

B

e

f

o

r

e

v

o

i

c

e

l

e

s

s

f

r

i

c

a

t

i

v

e

s

:

path, laugh, grass  

but

: 

maths, daffodil, gas, ass, mass…

southern 

accents

Northern accents, Scottish, Northern Irish [a]

b

)

b

e

f

o

r

e

n

/

m

+

c

o

n

s

o

n

a

n

t

dance, grant, demand

, example 

but: 

romance, pant, ban

d, camp

Welsh, Irish, Australian have 

[æ], although [ɑ:] in 

path

c

)

b

e

f

o

r

e

n

o

n

-

p

r

e

v

o

c

a

l

i

c

/

r

/

p

a

r

t

,

b

a

r

not in rhotic accents

d

)

b

e

f

o

r

e

f

o

r

m

e

r

l

+

l

a

b

i

a

l

,

s

o

m

e

o

t

h

e

r

l

e

x

i

c

a

l

i

t

e

m

s

p

a

l

m

,

h

a

l

f

,

b

a

n

a

n

a

,

t

o

m

a

t

o

.

.

.

b

)

b

e

f

o

r

e

n

/

m

+

c

o

n

s

o

n

a

n

t

dance, grant, demand

, example 

but: 

romance, pant, ban

d, camp

Welsh, Irish, Australian have 

[æ], although [ɑ:] in 

path

c

)

b

e

f

o

r

e

n

o

n

-

p

r

e

v

o

c

a

l

i

c

/

r

/

p

a

r

t

,

b

a

r

not in rhotic accents

d

)

b

e

f

o

r

e

f

o

r

m

e

r

l

+

l

a

b

i

a

l

,

s

o

m

e

o

t

h

e

r

l

e

x

i

c

a

l

i

t

e

m

s

p

a

l

m

,

h

a

l

f

,

b

a

n

a

n

a

,

t

o

m

a

t

o

.

.

.

D

i

p

h

t

h

o

n

g

s

•

c

e

n

t

r

i

n

g

d

i

p

h

t

h

o

n

g

s

:

[ɪə, ɛə, ɔə, ʊə] – the result of V + r > not in rhotic accents

D

i

p

h

t

h

o

n

g

s

•

c

e

n

t

r

i

n

g

d

i

p

h

t

h

o

n

g

s

:

[ɪə, ɛə, ɔə, ʊə] – the result of V + r > not in rhotic accents

s

t

r

o

n

g

s

m

o

o

t

h

i

n

g

t

e

n

d

e

n

c

y

Many speakers [ɔ:] instead of [ʊə]

•

c

l

o

s

i

n

g

d

i

p

h

t

h

o

n

g

s

:

[a

ɪ, eɪ, ɔɪ, əʊ, aʊ]

southern accents > wider first element

northern accents > narrower first element

far south-west E, far north E, Scotland, Wales, Ireland: monophthongs

gate: 

[gæɪt, gɛɪt, geɪt, ge:t]

boat: 

[bʌʉt, bɔʊt, bo:t]

D

i

p

h

t

h

o

n

g

s

•

c

e

n

t

r

i

n

g

d

i

p

h

t

h

o

n

g

s

:

[ɪə, ɛə, ɔə, ʊə] – the result of V + r > not in rhotic accents

s

t

r

o

n

g

s

m

o

o

t

h

i

n

g

t

e

n

d

e

n

c

y

Many speakers [ɔ:] instead of [ʊə]

•

c

l

o

s

i

n

g

d

i

p

h

t

h

o

n

g

s

:

[a

ɪ, eɪ, ɔɪ, əʊ, aʊ]

southern accents > wider first element

northern accents > narrower first element

far south-west E, far north E, Scotland, Wales, Ireland: monophthongs

COCKNEY

< 

coken ey ‘a misshapen egg without a yolk, as if laid by a cock’

(

Piers Plowman, 1364)

‘a milksop’ 

(Chaucer)

16th century: extended to people brought up in cities, ignorant of real

life:

“

This cockneys […] may abide no sorrow when they come to age. In

this great cities as London, York, the children be so nycely  and

wantonly brought up that commonly they can little good”

(Robert Whittinton, 

Vulgaria

, 1520)

“Two different modes of pronunciation prevail, by which the

inhabitants of one part of the town are distinguished from

those of the other. One is current in the City, and is called the

cockney. The other at the court end, and is called the polite

pronunciation”.

(The General Dictionary of the English Language, 1780)

19th century – “coarse, ugly”, the speech of the working class

Eastenders

traditinally: within the

earshot of the sound of the

Bow-Bells

St Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside,

City of London

How does Cockney sound?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4fRY6J6lD7k

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=svuPbOHWF-M

How does Cockney sound?

southern accent:

-

strut-foot split✓ : [ʌ] more as [a̝]

-

trap-bath split✓ : [æ] as [ɛ̝] or even [ɛɪ]

-

diphthongs more open✓ : [eɪ>æɪ, əʊ > ʌʉ, aɪ > ɑɪ, aʊ > æə]

-

the final vowel in 

city 

 [i:]

- non-rhotic✓

- /h/ absent, but 

also ‘hypercorrection (Did you hever see

…)✓

- 

glottal stop for 

the 

intervocalic 

and final 

t: bu

‘

er,

 wha’?✓

- vocalization of dark /l/✓

- [

f

/v/d]  

for 

<

th

>

 (

The Muvver Tongue 

by Robert Barltrop

, 1980

)

- -

ing

 > [

ɪ

n] or [ɪ

ƞ

k]: nuffink for 

nothing

- heavy aspiration of plosives, almost affrication of [t] to [ts]

- /r/ is more [

ʋ] than [ɹ]

N

on-standard double negation: 

There ain’t nuffink like it.

P

ast participle instead of simple past tense form

:

I done it yesterday, I just seen ‘er.

ain’t, innit

Rhyming Slang:

loaf (of bread) = 

head 

minces (minced pies) = eyes

plates (of meat) = feet

apples 

(

and pears

)

 = stairs

dog (and bone) = telephone

trouble 

(

and strife

) =

 wife

butchers (hook

)

 = look

rabbi

t (

and pork

)

 = talk

auntie (Ella) = umbrella 

raspberry (tart) = fart

Bristol (cities) = titties

Would you Adam an’ Eve it? = Would you believe it?

They had a bit of a bull and a cow = They had a row

Gregory Peck = neck, cheque

Britney (Spears) = beer

Tony (Blair) = flairs

Barney (Rubble) = trouble

Estuary English

South-eastern England, parts of London, northern Kent, south Essex

•

 non-rhotic, but intrusive r

•

 the trap-bath split -  [

ɑ

:] in 

bath

•

glottal stop for non-initial t

•

 yod-coalescence: [ʧ] in 

Tuesday, 

[ʤ] in 

dune

•

 yod-dropping in 

suitable, consume,presume

•

l-vocalisation

•

[əʊ] becomes [ɒʊ] before dark l 

goat : goal

Unlike Cockney, no h-dropping, double negation or [

ʋ] for [ ɹ]

frequent 

use of tags 

don’t I?, isn’t it

? 

Cheers

 for 

‘

thank-you

’

 or 

‘

good-bye

’

f

re

q

uent use of American patterns

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jc8dThmo5T8

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jkxm5UTe-Xg&feature=fvwrel

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k-nH3DN-ubE

Y

O

R

K

S

H

I

R

E

HISTORY:

Celtic tribes Brigantes and Parisi

Roman rule since AD 71

5

th

 c. – 7

th

 c. independent kingdom

Northumbria

Kingdom of  Jorvik  - 866 AD > Danelaw

Norwegian rule

10

th

 c. Wessex  > England

Norman Conquest

House of York

House of Lancaster (both Plantagenets)

War of the Roses

Henry  (Tudor) VII and Elisabeth of York 

YORKSHIRE DIALECT/ACCENT

Northern dialect

-

Old English and Old Norse roots

-

Mercian, partly Northumbrian

-

Bradford, York, Leeds, Sheffield

Phonemic features: 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScELaXMCVis

Phonemic features: 

-

[a] in 

d

ance, daft > 

no trap-bath split

-

[

ʊ] /[ə]  in 

put 

 and 

putt, 

but [ɒ] in 

one, once, nothing…

-

[i] in 

city  

is more open [ɪ], almost [ɛ] in Sheffield

-

[eɪ] in 

plate 

is [e:], but in 

eight 

it is [ɛɪ]

-

[əʊ] is [o:] in boat but [ɔʊ] in 

know

-

[aɪ] and [aʊ] may become [ɑ:]

-

nurse, hear , word = square 

[eɛ]

-

mostly non-rhotic, except those bordering on Lancashire

-

devoicing of voiced plosives before voiceless plosives

-

 glottal stop for final t, in some speakers also for k

-

 ɪn] in –

ing

, but [ƞg] in Sheffield

-

H-dropping

-

loss of  final t, d, f and th in function words

Grammar:

-

reduction of the definite article: t’ for the

-

the use of thou (tha’) and thee

-

relative clauses with what (instead of who, which, that)

-

negatives more contracted – 

int for isn’t, woun’t 

 for 

 wouldn’t

-

 owt 

and 

nowt 

 for anything and nothing [aʊ] or [ɔʊ]

-

Righ

t ‘really’

-

Nah then 

– as a greeting

-

Bloody – 

very common swear word

-

Give, gives > giz, take > tek, make > mek

-

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u7LgPvTYbw8

O

t

h

e

r

n

o

r

t

h

e

r

n

d

i

a

l

e

c

t

s

:

G

e

o

r

d

i

e

,

N

o

r

t

h

u

m

b

r

i

a

n

,

C

u

m

b

r

i

a

n

,

M

a

n

c

u

n

i

a

n

,

S

c

o

u

s

e

.

.

.

OE Northumbrian dialect

Irish, Scottish and Norse 

influence

similar phonemic and grammatical features as in Yorkshire

Northumbrian OE

: many sound changes preserved in RP 

not completed or different in the north:

OE h

ām > /he:m/ 

hame

no strut-foot split, no trap-bath split, smoothing of diphthongs

Celtic influence

:

Cumbric dialect of Brythonic Celtic

:

Sheep-counting  numerals  (fell farming, knitting) 

Yan Tan Tethera

Yan ‘one’ in general use in Cumbria

Northern subject rule: 

They sing. The birds sings. It is you that sings

.

Norse influence

:

Norwegians from Ireland via Isle of Man in 10

th

 century

 to Cumbria,

Danes 

mostly to East Riding (Yorkshire)

Norse 

still 

spoken in 12

th

 c.

beck

 ‘stream’

laik

 ‘play’

lowp

 ‘jump

fell 

‘mountain’

dale 

 ‘valley’

Scot

tish influence:

bairn  ‘

child’

canny  

‘pleasant’

howay 

, howee  

‘hurry up, come on’

Grammar:

•

h

istorical present 

with 

–s; habitual 

present with 

–s

•

l

evelling of was/were.

GEORDIE

“within spitting of theTyne”

Geordie 

<

 Georgie, 

very common name, also a 

safety lamp designed 

by George Stevenson

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qI05h_8Q6I

-

non-rhotic

-

y

od-coalescence

-

 t

–glottalization

-

[ɪƞ] > [ən]

-

no strut-foot split

-

[a

ʊ] > [u:], [eʉ]

-

[aɪ] > [eɪ]

-

-

er 

[a] instead of [ə]

Grammar:

•

h

istorical present 

with 

–s; habitual 

present with 

–s

•

l

evelling of was/were.

GEORDIE

“within spitting of theTyne”

Geordie 

<

 Georgie, 

very common name, also a 

safety lamp designed 

by George Stevenson

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qI05h_8Q6I

Grammar:

•

h

istorical present 

with 

–s; habitual 

present with 

–s

•

l

evelling of was/were.

GEORDIE

“within spitting of theTyne”

Geordie 

<

 Georgie, 

very common name, also a 

safety lamp designed 

by George Stevenson

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qI05h_8Q6I

-

non-rhotic

-

y

od-coalescence

-

 t

–glottalization

-

[ɪƞ] > [ən]

-

no strut-foot split

-

[a

ʊ] > [u:], [eʉ]

-

[aɪ] > [eɪ]

-

-

er 

[a] instead of [ə]

Cumbrian

Cumbric  - Celtic, Cumbrian – English

•

in some parts the cluster /cl-/ becomes /tl-/ > 

clean 

 [tli:n]

•

in the north, the vowel in 

house  

[u:]

•

epenthesis of [

ə] before l, r: 

feel, fool  

[fiəl], [fuəl]

  - like in Scottish

•

/k/ and /g/ dropped in final position

•

/r/ is /

ɾ/, mostly non-rhotic

•

you‘s for plural reference

•

the contracted to t‘ and often attached to the preceding word: 

wherest = where is the...

SCOUSE

Liverpudlian

different from the rest of Lancastrian accents,

Scandinavian and Irish influence (sailors and traders)

until 1950‘s confined to Liverpool

slum clearances > neigbouring counties

scouse < meat stew, of Scandinavian origin

•

very distinctive intonation

•

/k/ often becomes /kx/ or /x/

•

/

θ

/, /ð/ > /f/, /v/, /d/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EIhFwLjsQug

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gu9q_vedO7w

SCOTTISH ENGLISH

linguistic continuum: 

Standard Scottish English 

⇔

 Broad (Braid) Scots  (Doric)

Highland, Lowlands, Aberdeen – Edinburg – Glasgow

HISTORICAL BACKGROUND

Caledonia , Caledonians – 

indigenous inhabitants of Scotland in Iron Age 

and Roman era (Picts and fugitive Brythons) – north of Hadrian’s wall

Scotland < Scoti, 

a Celtic tribe in Ireland

5th century from 

 Ireland  

to Argyll and west Pictland (Caledonia)

D

a

l

R

i

a

t

a

,

D

a

l

r

i

a

d

e

Argyll, Inner Hebrides, Antrim

5th – 9th century

golden age  until 608, then

defeated by Picts

from 900 united with Pictish land

in the Kingdom of Alba (Albion)

12th century: David I of Scotland

exiled to England, influenced by Anglo-Norman culture

Davidian revolution – foundation of burghs, Gregorian reforms, 

monasteries, Norman type of feudalism

linguistic map of Scotland in early 

12th and 14th centuries:

(blue – Gaelic,

 purple/orange - Norse, 

lilac – English

yellow Scots

In burghs:   

Scots   

1

6

0

3

–

J

a

m

e

s

V

I

o

f

S

c

o

t

l

a

n

d

>

J

a

m

e

s

I

o

f

E

n

g

l

a

n

d

(

t

h

e

U

n

i

o

n

o

f

t

h

e

C

r

o

w

n

s

)

Common features of Scottish dialects:

•

rhotic (alveolar tap or trill)

•

witch 

and 

which

 are not homophones

•

no h-dropping

•

/x/ common in names borrowings from Gaelic or Scots

•

/p/, /t/, /k/ are not aspirated

•

no voicing of fricatives in unaccented position (

with

)

•

vowel length the same, but Scottish Vowel Length Rule: 

pause : paws

•

no trap-bath split

•

strut-foot split, but no fool-full distinction

•

h

t

t

p

s

:

/

/

w

w

w

.

y

o

u

t

u

b

e

.

c

o

m

/

w

a

t

c

h

?

v

=

B

A

A

O

q

j

Q

C

o

0

U

-

/ei/ 

=

 /e/: 

bay, pair, gate

-

/ou/ 

= 

 /o

/

 boat;

Grammar

: 

Had you good time

?

I’m needing a cup of tea

Did you buy it yet?; He is here yet.

aye - yes, 

bairn – child

bonnie - pretty

brae - hill, 

bramble - blackberry, 

burn - stream,

dram - drink, 

dreich - dull, 

folk - people,

greet - weep

loch - lake, 

kirk

-church

mind - remember, 

muckle

- big

provost - mayor, 

wee - small, 

lass - girl, 

lad – boy

…

•

heavy influence of the conservative Doric accent of Scots 

•

rhotic, /r/ is an approximant, a tap or a trill, uvular common in some speakers

•

vocalisation of /l/

•

glottal stop common in younger speakers

•

/

ʍ/ realized as [f] or [

Φ

]: /fu:/ 

who, 

/fɪt/ 

what, 

[faɹ] 

where...

•

fir, fur, fern

 have different vowels: /fɪɹ/, /fʌɹ/, /fɛɹn/

•

<

nch> : /nʃ/ 

branch

•

 /gn/ 

gnaw, 

/kn/ 

know

•

/d/ dropped after /l/ or /n/: 

child, elder, find...

•

/w/ often /v/ in initial 

wr-

•

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vDNN6NigGNM

Edinburg and Glasgow

closer to Standard Scottish

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_FSWlfcg6oA

IRELAND

Bronze and Iron Age – several waves of Celtic immigration, the last to arrive

were Gaels (800-100 BC)

Greco-Roman geographers: 

micra Bretania

, later 

Iwernia, 

Latinized 

Hibernia,

Scotia

From 700 AD, the institution of “the High King of Ireland”,  residing at Tara

early  5th century: conversion to Christianity – St Patrick, patron saint

of Ireland

9th century – Viking raids – 840 Dublin (< Dubh Linn ‘black pool’)

Baile Átha Cliath

, 

Áth Cliath  

‘town of the hurdled ford’

11th century – invasions of Norman and Welsh  knights, 

Henry II accepted by many Irish kings as their overlord

support of Pope Alexander II’s 

the Norman–Irish feudal system replaced the Brehon Law

14th century – Black Death, Norman settlements in decline, 

Norman rule Gaelicised – Hiberno-Norman culture emerged

Statutes of Kilkenny (1367)

the Wars of the Roses (1455 – 1485)

the House of Lancaster : the House of York (Henry VII – Richard III)

the Irish supported the losing side (House of York)

Henry VIII – proclaimed King of Ireland

Reformation – strongly resisted

English – the symbol of Protestantism

the Tudor conquest of Ireland, enforcement of the English Law

nine-year war (1594-1603) ended with the victory of the English

The Flight of the Earls – 1607

Tyrconnell  (O’Donnells) 

     Tyrone (O’Neills)

Ulster Plantation

English speaking,

Protestant colonists from

England and Scotland

1921 – the independence 

of Republic of Ireland

Gaeltacht

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TlF4MTibBKQ

three varieties of “Irish English”:

Anglo-Irish: derived from the 17th century plantators’ English (West Midland)

Hiberno-English: Gaelic ancestry

Ulster Scots

Hiberno English – Gaelic influence the strongest

Educated middle class IE: similar to Scottish English:

/e:/ instead of /e

ɪ

/

 in gate 

/

ɛ

i/ instead of /a

ɪ

/ in buy

/o:/ instead of /

əʊ

/ in boat

/æu/ instead of /a

ʊ

/ in house

/ɔ

ɪ

/ is almost /ai/ in oil

/r/ is as in AmE; wh- and w- are distinctive. 

Northern Irish: similar to Scottish English

-

distinctive rising intonation 

-

/a/ - more back before /f, s/, but /

æ/ before /g, k, ƞ/: 

daft, class – back, bang

Dublin Irish: closer to West Midland (Bristol)

-

trap-bath split

-

no 

strut-foot split

-

/ai/ more like /

ɔɪ/ 

-

<th> often pronounced as dental stops

-

/p, t, k/ strongly aspirated

Grammar:

reduplication: 

at all at all

I am, he is not 

 for 

yes, no

to be after doing sth 

– recent past

I have my breakfast eaten

He does be working every day. 

Lexicon: 

banshee

bog

brat (cloak)

colleen (young woman)

galore (< ga lor = till plenty)

hooligan (< O‘Houlihan)

lough (loch)

phoney 

slogan (< battle cry used by Gaelic)

whisky (< uisce  „water of life“)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TlF4MTibBKQ