Basic Learning Processes
Explore the essential vocabulary related to operant learning and reinforcement, including terms like automatic reinforcer, conditioned reinforcer, and positive reinforcement. Gain insights into theories such as drive-reduction theory and response-deprivation theory. Enhance your knowledge of behavioral momentum, establishing operations, and more in the realm of behavioral psychology.
- Operant Learning
- Reinforcement Vocabulary
- Behavioral Psychology
- Learning Processes
- Behavioral Theory
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Basic Learning Processes Robert C. Kennedy, PhD University of Central Florida robert.kennedy@ucf.edu
Chapter 5 - Operant Learning: Reinforcement
Vocabulary Automatic reinforcer: Another term for natural reinforcer. Behavioral momentum: A term used to refer to the strength of a reinforced behavior. It is worth noting that the strength can be measured in various ways, including resistance to non-reinforcement and aversive consequences for the behavior. Conditioned reinforcer: See secondary reinforcer. Contrived reinforcer: Reinforcing events that have been arranged by someone, usually to modify behavior. Dopamine: A neurotransmitter that appears to be important in reinforcement. Drive-reduction theory: The theory of reinforcement that attributes a reinforcer s effectiveness to the reduction of a drive. Escape-avoidance learning: A form of negative reinforcement in which the subject first learns to escape, and then to avoid, an aversive. Establishing operation: A motivating operation that increases the effectiveness of a reinforcer. See the comment on motivating operations, below. Generalized reinforcer: Conditioned (or secondary) reinforcers that have been paired with many different kinds of reinforcers. Instrumental learning: See operant learning.
Vocabulary Law of effect: The statement that behavior is a function of its consequences. Motivating operation: This term is now generally used to mean any procedure that makes a reinforcer more effective (establishing operations) or less effective (abolishing operations). Natural reinforcer: Reinforcing events that follow automatically (naturally) from the behavior. Negative reinforcement: A reinforcement procedure in which a behavior is followed by the removal of, or a decrease in the intensity of, a stimulus. Negative reinforcer: Any stimulus which, when removed following a behavior, increases or maintains the strength of that behavior. One-process theory: The view that avoidance and punishment involve only one process, operant learning. Operant learning: Any procedure in which a behavior becomes stronger or weaker (e.g., more or less likely to occur), depending on its consequences. (Any suggestion that the term applies only to animal learning should be corrected.) Positive reinforcement: A reinforcement procedure in which a behavior is followed by the presentation or an increase in the intensity of a stimulus. Positive reinforcer: Any stimulus which, when presented following a behavior, increases or maintains the frequency of that behavior. Premack principle: The observation that high-probability behavior reinforces low-probability behavior. Primary reinforcer: Any reinforcer that is not dependent on another reinforcer for its reinforcing properties.
Vocabulary Reinforcement: The procedure of providing consequences for a behavior that increase or maintain the strength of that behavior. Relative value theory: Theory of reinforcement that considers reinforcers to be behaviors rather than stimuli and that attributes a reinforcer s effectiveness to its probability relative to other behaviors. Response-deprivation theory: The theory of reinforcement that maintains that a behavior is reinforcing to the extent that the organism has been deprived (relative to its baseline frequency) of performing that behavior. Reward learning: Another term for positive reinforcement. (In reward learning, we learn from reinforcing consequences.) Some instructors strongly oppose the use of this term, but it is used by biologists and neuroscientists, so it may be a good idea to point out that what people in those fields are talking about is positive reinforcement. Reward pathway: A poorly defined area in the septal region of the brain thought to provide the physiological basis of at least some forms of reinforcement. Formerly called the reward center. Satiation: A sharp reduction in the reinforcing power of an event due to repeated exposure to that event. Primary reinforcers are particularly prone to satiation. Secondary reinforcer: Any reinforcer that has acquired its reinforcing properties through its association with other reinforcers. Sidman avoidance procedure: An escape-avoidance training procedure in which no stimulus regularly precedes the aversive stimulus. Two-process theory: The view that avoidance and punishment involve both Pavlovian and operant procedures.
Reinforcement Learning Behavioral approach which assumes that reinforcement conditions behavior and that behavior is environmentally caused. Doesn t concern itself with what initiates behavior Ignores feelings, expectations, and attitudes, all cognitive variables that are known to influence behavior
Reinforcement Learning Thorndike s early work led him to formulate the law of effect: rewarded behavior is likely to occur again. Skinner built on this foundation: He invented most of the terms of operant learning used today, and described the basic procedures.
Reinforcement Learning Operant and Pavlovian procedures differ in several ways operant procedures involve response-contingent events, whereas Pavlovian conditioning involves stimulus-contingent events rate of operant learning is affected by the degree of contingency and contiguity, reinforcer characteristics, and other factors. extinction of an operant response involves the withholding of reinforcing consequences.
Reinforcement Learning There are three main theories of positive reinforcement drive-reduction relative value response deprivation There are two theories of avoidance two-process one-process
Law of effect According to Thorndike, behavior is strengthened of weakened by its consequences Four key elements: 1) Environment (behavior where situation occurs) 2) Behavior that occurs 3) Change in environment following behavior 4) Change in behavior produced by consequence
Operant Learning Skinner called experiences where behavior is strengthened or weakened by consequences operant learning Reinforcement: an increase in strength of behavior due to its consequence
Positive Reinforcement Also called reward learning Consequence of behavior is the appearance or increase in intensity of a stimulus Positive reinforcer: something individual seeks out (e.g. success, money, approval, food)
Negative Reinforcement Also known as escape learning or escape- avoidance learning Behavior is strengthened by removal, or decrease in intensity of stimulus Reinforcement of behavior by escaping from the aversive situation
Operant Conditioning Both positive and negative reinforcement increases strength of behavior Positive reinforcement adds to the situation Negative reinforcement removes from the situation
Operant Chamber Using Thorndike's law of effect as a starting point, Skinner developed the Operant chamber, or the Skinner box, to study operant conditioning. Comes with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a reinforcer like food or water. The bar or key is connected to devices that record the animal s response. Walter Dawn/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
Reinforcers Some researchers argue that Pavlovian and operant procedures are really different aspects of the same phenomenon. Taste aversion provides an example. However, to consider it a form of operant learning: Eating a particular flavor is punished by nausea. Thus, whether learning is Pavlovian or operant may depend on how one looks at the events.
Types of Reinforcers Reinforcement: Any event that strengthens the behavior it follows. A heat lamp positively reinforces a meerkat s behavior in the cold. Reuters/ Corbis 17
Primary & Secondary Reinforcers Primary Reinforcer: An innately reinforcing stimulus like food or drink. Conditioned Reinforcer: A learned reinforcer that gets its reinforcing power through association with the primary reinforcer. 18
More types of reinforcers Primary reinforcers (unconditioned reinforcers): food, water, sexual stimulation - Lose effectiveness quickly with satiation Secondary reinforcers (conditioned reinforcers): result of learning experiences Generalized reinforcers: reinforcers that have been paired with many different kinds of reinforcers (e.g. money) Contrived reinforcers: events that are provided by someone for purpose of modifying behavior (e.g. give reward when child does something correctly)
Immediate & Delayed Reinforcers Immediate Reinforcer: A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. A rat gets a food pellet for a bar press. Delayed Reinforcer: A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior. A paycheck that comes at the end of a week. We may be inclined to engage in small immediate reinforcers (watching TV) rather than large delayed reinforcers (getting an A in a course) which require consistent study.
More types of reinforcers Primary reinforcers (unconditioned reinforcers): food, water, sexual stimulation - Lose effectiveness quickly with satiation Secondary reinforcers (conditioned reinforcers): result of learning experiences Generalized reinforcers: reinforcers that have been paired with many different kinds of reinforcers (e.g. money) Contrived reinforcers: events that are provided by someone for purpose of modifying behavior (e.g. give reward when child does something correctly)
Variables influence operant learning Primary reinforcers (unconditioned reinforcers): food, water, sexual stimulation - Lose effectiveness quickly with satiation Secondary reinforcers (conditioned reinforcers): result of learning experiences Generalized reinforcers: reinforcers that have been paired with many different kinds of reinforcers (e.g. money) Contrived reinforcers: events that are provided by someone for purpose of modifying behavior (e.g. give reward when child does something correctly)
Operant Learning Influences Contingency: refers to likelihood that a reinforcer will follow a behavior (i.e. the more reliably a reinforcer follows behavior, the more it strengths the behavior) Contiguity: Gap in time between a behavior and its reinforcing consequence Some reinforcers work better than others through size and strength
Neuromechanisms Reinforcement Work by Olds and Milner demonstrated the reinforcing potential of electrical stimulation of the brain - Implanted electrodes stimulated reward pathway , where dopamine is produced when stimulated
Hulls Drive Reduction Theory This theory states that organism , especially humans , learn to perform Behavior that have the effect of reducing their biological drives . Hull s drive reduction theory is based upon his mathematical formulation Known as: Hull s law The equation reads as follows : E = H x D where E = Energy or Response Potential : The energy for performing the behavior , which is directly related to the probability of the behavior being completed . H = Habit : the strength of particular stimulus-response association D = Drive : the strength of biologically based homeostatic need
Theories of Positive Reinforcement Relative Value Theory: high probability behavior reinforces low-probability behavior Response-Deprivation Theory: behavior becomes reinforcing when the individual is prevented from engaging in the behavior at its normal frequency
Theories of Avoidance Two-process theory: Pavlovian and operant learning experiences are involved in avoidance learning One-process theory: Avoidance involves only operant learning
Two Process Theory of Avoidance Explains avoidance learning in terms of two necessary processes: First, the subject learns to associate the warning stimulus with the SAversive what is this? This is a classical conditioning process; the warning stimulus of the light is the CS, the SAversive of shock is the US. CS (light) US (shock) UR (fear) CR (fear)
Two Process Theory of Avoidance Now, the subject can be negatively reinforced during the warning stimulus; this is the second, operant conditioning process Removes R CS i.e., reduces fear Strengthens Thus the two-process theory reduces avoidance learning to escape learning; the organism learns to escape from the CS and the fear that it elicits.
Premack Principle The Premack Principle, often called "grandma's rule," states that a high-frequency activity can be used to reinforce low- frequency behavior. Access to the preferred activity is contingent on completing the low-frequency, non-preferred behavior. The high frequency behavior to use as a reinforcer can be determined by: Asking what one would like to do. Observing one during free time. Knowledge of interests of a particular age group.
Next Class Next lecture Monday, 10/19, Chapter 6 Practice Quizzes
