Academic Writing Essentials: Background, Types, and Formats

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IE178
TECHNICAL AND
PROFESSIONAL
COMPOSITION
 
2
nd
 Presentation
 
 
1. The writing process
 
: Background to writing
 
2. Elements of writing
 
: Argument and discussion
 
3. Accuracy in writing
 
: Abbreviations
 
4. Writing models
 
: Formal letters and emails
 
Dr. Abdulcabbar Yavuz
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Part 1. The writing
 process
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
 
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
 
In this section:
 
The names of different writing tasks
The format of long and short writing tasks
The use of sentence and paragraphs
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
1. The purpose of academic writing
Writers should be clear why they are writing. The most common
reasons for writing include:
to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted
to answer a question the writer has been given or chosen
to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer’s view
to synthesise research done by others on a topic
Can you suggest any other reasons?
 
to present a hypothesis for consideration by others
to make notes on something read or heard
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
1. The purpose of academic writing
Academic writing attempts to be 
accurate
 and 
objective
. What is
other features?
 
Impersonal style
Formal vocabulary, lack of idioms
Use of citation/references
Use of both passive and active
Cautious
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
1. Common types of academic writing
Project
Notes
Dissertation /
thesis
Paper
Report
Essay
 
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
3. The format of long and short writing tasks
 
Short essays (including
exam answers)
generally have this
pattern:
Introduction
Main body
Conclusion
 
Longer essays may
include:
Introduction
Main body
Literature review
Case study
Discussion
Conclusion
References
Appendices
 
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
3. The format of long and short writing tasks
 
Dissertations and journal articles may have:
Abstract
List of contents
List of tables
Introduction
 
Main body
Literature review
Case study
Findings
Discussion
 
Conclusion
Acknowledgements
References
Appendices
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Abstract
 
References
 
Acknowledgements
 
Appendix
 
Literature review
 
Case Study
 
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
4. The features of academic writing
 
There is considerable variation in the format of
academic writing required by different schools
and departments.
 
Your teachers may give you guidelines, or you
should ask them what they want.
 
But some general features apply to most
formats.
undefined
a) Title
b) Subtitle
c) Heading
d) Sentence
e) Phrase
f) Paragraph
 
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
5. Some other common text features
 
Reference 
to sources using 
citation
:
 
According to Tamura et al. (2009)
The use of 
abbreviations 
to save space:
 
docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)
Italics: 
used to show words from other languages:
 
Tamura 
et al. 
(= and others)
Brackets: 
used to give subsidiary information or to
clarify a point:
 
. . . but others (short-chain fatty acids) come from
 
cheaper sources such as soya.
 
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
6. Simple and complex sentences
 
Study the table below.
 
Annual vehicle production 2005–9
 
All sentences contain verbs:
In 2005 the company 
produced 
over 135,000 vehicles.
Between 2005 and 2006 vehicle production 
increased 
by 20 per
cent.
In 2005 the company produced over 135,000 vehicles 
but
between 2005 and 2006 production increased by 20 per cent.
Over 164,000 vehicles were produced in 2007
; 
by 2009 this had
fallen to 123,000.
Chapter 1.1. Background to writing
6. Simple and complex sentences
Annual vehicle production 2005–9
 
In 2007 the company produced nearly 165,000 vehicles.
Vehicle production fell in 2008.
In 2009 fewer vehicles were made than in the four previous years.
Between 2005 and 2009 vehicle production peaked in 2007, when
the number reached 164,000.
Write two simple and two complex sentences using data
from the table above.
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Part 2. Elements of writing
Chapter 2.1. Argument 
and Discussion
 
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
1. Discussion vocabulary
 
Essay titles commonly ask students to ‘discuss’ a topic:
‘Children will learn a foreign language more easily if it
is integrated with another subject – Discuss.’
undefined
benefits / advantages
drawback/ disadvantages
negative
benefits / advantages
drawback/ disadvantages
benefit / advantage
 
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
2. Organisation
 
The discussion section can be organised in two ways;
by grouping the benefits in one paragraph and the
disadvantages in another (
vertical
),
by examining the subject from different viewpoints
(
horizontal
).
For example, the following essay title can be discussed in
the two ways as shown:
 
 
‘Prisons do little to reform criminals and their use
should be limited – Discuss.’
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Vertical
 
Horizontal
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
2. Organisation
 What are the advantages of each format (i.e.
vertical and horizontal)?
 
Vertical: a simpler pattern suitable for short essays
Horizontal: this allows a more complex approach in
longer essays
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
3. Practice A
“Discuss whether some employees should be permitted to work
from home.”
Brainstorm the positive and negative aspects, and then write an
outline using one of the structures (vertical or horizontal).
 
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
3. Practice A
 
“Discuss whether some employees should be permitted to work
from home.”
 
(a) Introduction:
reasons for growth of home-working: development in communication
technology, demand for more flexible work patterns.
(b) Drawbacks:
Employees may feel isolated, be distracted by activities at home.
May not suit all employees, some prefer more direct management.
(c) Benefits:
Companies need to provide less office space, less time spent on commuting
= more work time, employees have more flexibility.
(d) Discussion:
Of benefit to certain employees in some roles, but necessary to have
regular contact with colleagues and managers.
 
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
4. The language of discussion
 
Use impersonal phrases instead such as:
It is generally accepted that
It is widely agreed that
Most people appear
It is probable that
The evidence suggests that
These phrases suggest a minority viewpoint:
It can be argued that
One view is that
When you are supporting your opinions with sources use phrases
such as:
According to Emerson (2003)
Poledna (2007) claims that
 
 
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
5. Counter-arguments
 
Counter-arguments are ideas that are opposite
to your ideas.
 
In an academic discussion you must show that you
are familiar with both sides of the argument, and
provide reasons to support your position.
 
It is usual to deal with the counter-arguments first,
before giving your view.
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
5. Counter-arguments
What is the writer’s position in the following example, on
the topic of prisons (2 above)? 
 
“It is claimed that prisons are needed to isolate
 
dangerous criminals from society, but while this may
 
be true in some cases, more commonly prisons act as
 
‘universities of crime’, which reinforce criminal
 
behaviour.”
 
The writer’s position is essentially critical
of the way prisons work
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
5. Counter-arguments
write two more sentences using ideas from title in 3 which is
“some employees should be permitted to work from home.”
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
6. Providing evidence
Normally your conclusions on a topic follow an assessment
of the evidence.
You must show that you have studied the relevant sources
since only then can you give a balanced judgement.
Read the text in your handbook page 106 and answer the
question on page 107.
 
1 Claims for `digital natives’
2. Arguments against
3. Writer’s viewpoint
 
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
7. Practice B
 
Write two paragraphs on the topic: 
‘Is the exploration of
space worthwhile?’ 
Use the ideas below and make your
stance clear.
 
Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion
7. Practice B (example answer)
 
There has been considerable debate about the value of space
exploration, in view of the high costs involved. Supporters such as Donnet-
Kammel (2005) claim that this is a vital method of collecting data about
the structure of the universe, and additionally point out that there have
been many practical benefits arising from the space programme, such as
satellite communication. The example of the space station is also given as
an instance of the value of the research programme in encouraging
international co-operation.
In contrast, critics (e.g. Soroka, 2000) point to the huge costs involved in
launching space probes, claiming that these resources would be better
devoted to solving the serious earthly problems of hunger and disease.
Furthermore, they argue that much of the space programme is effectively
a testing ground for new weapons, such as missiles, and brings little
benefit to ordinary people. In the context of the current economic crisis, a
more critical approach is clearly needed in deciding which of those
projects have real value.
undefined
 
Part 3. Accuracy in writing
Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations
 
Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations
1. Types of abbreviations
 
Abbreviations are an important and expanding feature of
contemporary English, widely used for convenience and space-
saving.
Students need to be familiar with general and academic
abbreviations.
Types of abbreviations
(a) 
Shortened words
: without the writer being aware of the original form ‘Bus’
comes from ‘omnibus’. ‘Refrigerator’ is still better in written English than the informal
‘fridge’. ‘Public house’ is now very formal (‘pub’ is acceptable), but ‘television’ or ‘TV’
should be used instead of the idiomatic ‘telly’.
(b) 
Acronyms: 
initial letters of a name or phrase (e.g. AIDS = Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome). They are pronounced as words.
(c) 
Other abbreviations :
names of countries, organisations and companies (USA/
BBC/ IBM), and also abbreviations that are only found in written English (e.g. PTO).
 
Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations
2. Some common abbreviations
 
BSc 
 
Bachelor of Sciences
CV 
 
curriculum vitae
DIY 
 
do-it-yourself
EU 
 
European Union
GM 
 
genetically modified
HRM 
 
human resource management
ICT 
 
information and communications technology
IMF 
 
International Monetary Fund
MA 
 
Master of Arts
PG 
 
Postgraduate
PhD 
 
Doctor of Philosophy
PLC 
 
public limited company
PR 
 
public relations
UG 
 
undergraduate
UN 
 
United Nations
VC 
 
Vice-Chancellor
WTO 
 
World Trade Organisation
 
Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations
3. Punctuation
 
many standard abbreviations have a full stop after them to show that
it is a shortened form
lt. = litre
govt. 
(government)
co. (company)
Oct. (October).
 
no standard pattern for using full stops, so both BBC and B.B.C. are
used.
a tendency to use full stops less.
The important thing is to employ a consistent style in your work.
 
Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations
4. Duplicate abbreviations
 
Abbreviations can be confusing.
PC, for example, may stand for ‘personal
computer’ but also ‘politically correct’ or
something else.
 
It is useful to be aware of these potential
confusions.
 
A good dictionary should be used to
understand more unusual abbreviations.
 
Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations
5. Abbreviations in writing
 
anon. 
 
anonymous
(no author)
asap
 
 as soon as possible
cf. 
 
compare
ed. 
 
editor/ edition
e.g. 
 
for example
et al. 
 
and others
(used for giving names of
multiple authors)
Fig. 
 
figure (for labelling
charts and graphs)
ibid. 
 
in the same place (to
refer to source mentioned
immediately before)
 
i.e. 
  
that is
K
 
 
 
thousand
NB. 
  
take careful note
nd. 
  
no date (i.e. an
undated source)
op. cit. 
 
in the source
mentioned previously
p.a. 
  
yearly (per annum)
pp. 
  
pages
PS 
  
postscript
re. 
  
with reference to
 
Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations
6. Practice
 
(a) information and communications technology / higher education/ and
others
(b) genetically modified/ for example
(c) that is / the World Trade Organisation
(d) note/ curricula vitae/ Human Resources
(e) The Organisation for Economic and Cultural Development/ The United
Arab Emirates
(f) The European Union/ Value Added Tax
(g) Doctor of Philosophy (thesis)/ Tuberculosis/ south east
(h) Figure 4/ world wide web
(i) Vice-Chancellor/ Postgraduate Certificate of Education
(j) Public relations/ approximately/ $75,000
(k) With reference to/ Annual General Meeting/ as soon as possible
(l) Professor/ Master of Science/ Master of Arts
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Part 4. Writing Models
Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails
 
Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails
1. Letters
 
letters are still important for formal matters,
or when an email address is unknown.
They are also considered to be more
reliable than emails.
Due to its convenience email is increasingly
used for semi-formal as well as informal
communication.
It is widely seen as a way of having a
permanent record of an arrangement or
discussion
.
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a) address of
sender
b) address of
recipient
c) sender’s
reference
e) greeting
f) Subject
headline
g) reason for
writing
h) further details
i) request for
response
j) ending
k) signature
l) writer’s name and job title
d) date
 
Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails
1. Letters
 
Note the following points:
(a) The example above is addressed to 
a known individual
and the ending is 
‘Yours sincerely’. 
However, when writing
to 
somebody 
whose name 
you do not know
, e.g. The
Manager, use 
Dear Sir and 
Yours faithfully
.
(b) 
A formal letter 
generally uses the family name in the
greeting (
Dear Ms 
Tan). Certain organisations may, however,
use a first name with a 
family name or even a first name
alone (
Dear Jane Tan, Dear Jane).
(c) If the sender includes a reference it is helpful to quote it in
your reply.
 
Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails
2. Practice A
 
Write a reply to Mr Bramble making the
following points:
 
(a) You will attend the interview on the date given.
(b) You would like to have the interview one hour
later, due to 
train times.
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A reply to Mr Bramble
 
Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails
3. Emails
 
Starting
If you know the recipient: 
Hi
 Sophie, 
Dear
 Sophie, 
Hello
 Sophie
If you have not met the recipient it may be safer to use: 
Dear
 Sophie Gratton,
Dear
 Ms Gratton, 
Dear
 Dr Gratton
to send an email to a large group (e.g. colleagues): 
Hi
 everyone, 
Hello
 all
Finishing
In all cases to close the message you can use: 
Regards, Best wishes, Best regards
You may also add a standard formula before this: 
Look forward to meeting
next week/ Let me know if you need further information.
The main text
You can use common contractions (I’ve, don’t) and idiomatic language, but the
normal rules for punctuation should be followed to avoid confusion.
check for spelling and grammar problems before pressing the ‘send’ key.
Note that emails tend to be short, although longer documents may be added
as attachments.
Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails
4. Practice B
Read the following and decide who the sender and recipient might be.
Would Rachel expect a reply?
 
Sender = student 
 
 
/
 
recipient = teacher
Reply is unlikely, unless recipient needs to comment on the attached paper.
Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails
5. Practice C
Write suitable emails for the following situations:
(a) You are writing to
Mark, a colleague at
work, to ask him to
suggest a time to meet
you tomorrow
 
Hi Mark,
We need to schedule a short
meeting tomorrow. What time
would suit you?
See you soon,
(b) Write to your teacher,
Tricia James, to ask her
to recommend another
book for your current
essay.
 
Hello Tricia,
I’m looking for another source for
this month’s essay. Could you
recommend something suitable?
Best wishes,
Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails
5. Practice C
Write suitable emails for the following situations:
(c) Write to a group
of classmates asking
them how they want
to celebrate the end
of the course.
 
Hi everyone,
It’s only a week before the end of the
course – what are we going to do to
celebrate? Let me have your ideas –
I’ll pass them on and hopefully get
something good fixed up for Sat 12
th
!
(d) Write an email in
response to the one
shown in page 253.
You have never had
that book.
 
Dear Tim Carey,
I’ve never had this book, so I can’t return
it. Can you check your records
please?
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Explore the essential aspects of academic writing in this comprehensive guide. Learn about the purpose of academic writing, common types such as projects and essays, and the formats for short and long writing tasks. Discover the features of academic writing like accuracy, objectivity, and formal style to enhance your writing skills.


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  1. IE178 TECHNICAL AND PROFESSIONAL COMPOSITION 2nd Presentation 1. The writing process 2. Elements of writing 3. Accuracy in writing 4. Writing models : Background to writing : Argument and discussion : Abbreviations : Formal letters and emails Dr. Abdulcabbar Yavuz

  2. Part 1. The writing process Chapter 1.1. Background to writing

  3. Chapter 1.1. Background to writing In this section: The names of different writing tasks The format of long and short writing tasks The use of sentence and paragraphs

  4. Chapter 1.1. Background to writing 1. The purpose of academic writing Writers should be clear why they are writing. The most common reasons for writing include: to report on a piece of research the writer has conducted to answer a question the writer has been given or chosen to discuss a subject of common interest and give the writer s view to synthesise research done by others on a topic Can you suggest any other reasons? to present a hypothesis for consideration by others to make notes on something read or heard

  5. Chapter 1.1. Background to writing 1. The purpose of academic writing Academic writing attempts to be accurate and objective. What is other features? Impersonal style Formal vocabulary, lack of idioms Use of citation/references Use of both passive and active Cautious

  6. Chapter 1.1. Background to writing 1. Common types of academic writing Project Dissertation / thesis Notes Paper Report Essay

  7. Chapter 1.1. Background to writing 3. The format of long and short writing tasks Short essays (including exam answers) generally have this pattern: Introduction Main body Conclusion Longer essays may include: Introduction Main body Literature review Case study Discussion Conclusion References Appendices

  8. Chapter 1.1. Background to writing 3. The format of long and short writing tasks Dissertations and journal articles may have: Abstract List of contents List of tables Introduction Main body Literature review Case study Findings Discussion Conclusion Acknowledgements References Appendices

  9. Abstract References Appendix Acknowledgements Literature review Case Study

  10. Chapter 1.1. Background to writing 4. The features of academic writing There is considerable variation in the format of academic writing required by different schools and departments. Your teachers may give you guidelines, or you should ask them what they want. But some general features apply to most formats.

  11. a) Title b) Subtitle c) Heading d) Sentence e) Phrase f) Paragraph

  12. Chapter 1.1. Background to writing 5. Some other common text features Reference to sources using citation: According to Tamura et al. (2009) The use of abbreviations to save space: docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) Italics: used to show words from other languages: Tamura et al. (= and others) Brackets: used to give subsidiary information or to clarify a point: . . . but others (short-chain fatty acids) come from cheaper sources such as soya.

  13. Chapter 1.1. Background to writing 6. Simple and complex sentences Study the table below. Annual vehicle production 2005 9 All sentences contain verbs: In 2005 the company produced over 135,000 vehicles. Between 2005 and 2006 vehicle production increased by 20 per cent. In 2005 the company produced over 135,000 vehicles but between 2005 and 2006 production increased by 20 per cent. Over 164,000 vehicles were produced in 2007; by 2009 this had fallen to 123,000.

  14. Chapter 1.1. Background to writing 6. Simple and complex sentences Annual vehicle production 2005 9 Write two simple and two complex sentences using data from the table above. In 2007 the company produced nearly 165,000 vehicles. Vehicle production fell in 2008. In 2009 fewer vehicles were made than in the four previous years. Between 2005 and 2009 vehicle production peaked in 2007, when the number reached 164,000.

  15. Part 2. Elements of writing Chapter 2.1. Argument and Discussion

  16. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 1. Discussion vocabulary Essay titles commonly ask students to discuss a topic: Children will learn a foreign language more easily if it is integrated with another subject Discuss. + - benefit advantage a positive aspect pro (informal) plus (informal) one major advantage is . . . drawback disadvantage a negative feature con (informal) minus (informal) a serious drawback is . . .

  17. benefits / advantages drawback/ disadvantages negative benefits / advantages drawback/ disadvantages benefit / advantage

  18. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 2. Organisation The discussion section can be organised in two ways; by grouping the benefits in one paragraph and the disadvantages in another (vertical), by examining the subject from different viewpoints (horizontal). For example, the following essay title can be discussed in the two ways as shown: Prisons do little to reform criminals and their use should be limited Discuss.

  19. Vertical Horizontal

  20. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 2. Organisation What are the advantages of each format (i.e. vertical and horizontal)? Vertical: a simpler pattern suitable for short essays Horizontal: this allows a more complex approach in longer essays

  21. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 3. Practice A Discuss whether some employees should be permitted to work from home. Brainstorm the positive and negative aspects, and then write an outline using one of the structures (vertical or horizontal). + - Employees may feel isolated May not suit all employees Home may contain distractions Requires different management style No time spent commuting to work Gives employees more flexibility Saves expensive office space

  22. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 3. Practice A Discuss whether some employees should be permitted to work from home. (a) Introduction: reasons for growth of home-working: development in communication technology, demand for more flexible work patterns. (b) Drawbacks: Employees may feel isolated, be distracted by activities at home. May not suit all employees, some prefer more direct management. (c) Benefits: Companies need to provide less office space, less time spent on commuting = more work time, employees have more flexibility. (d) Discussion: Of benefit to certain employees in some roles, but necessary to have regular contact with colleagues and managers.

  23. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 4. The language of discussion Use impersonal phrases instead such as: It is generally accepted that It is widely agreed that Most people appear It is probable that The evidence suggests that These phrases suggest a minority viewpoint: It can be argued that One view is that When you are supporting your opinions with sources use phrases such as: According to Emerson (2003) Poledna (2007) claims that

  24. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 5. Counter-arguments Counter-arguments are ideas that are opposite to your ideas. In an academic discussion you must show that you are familiar with both sides of the argument, and provide reasons to support your position. It is usual to deal with the counter-arguments first, before giving your view.

  25. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 5. Counter-arguments What is the writer s position in the following example, on the topic of prisons (2 above)? It is claimed that prisons are needed to isolate dangerous criminals from society, but while this may be true in some cases, more commonly prisons act as universities of crime , which reinforce criminal behaviour. The writer s position is essentially critical of the way prisons work

  26. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 5. Counter-arguments write two more sentences using ideas from title in 3 which is some employees should be permitted to work from home. Counter-argument Your position Some people believe that homeworkers become isolated, but this can be avoided by holding weekly meetings for all departmental staff. but in practice there seems little evidence for this. It has been claimed that employees may waste time at home, Although home-working may save companies money by reducing the need for office space, employees need to have a well- equipped workspace in their home.

  27. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 6. Providing evidence Normally your conclusions on a topic follow an assessment of the evidence. You must show that you have studied the relevant sources since only then can you give a balanced judgement. Read the text in your handbook page 106 and answer the question on page 107. 1 Claims for `digital natives 2. Arguments against 3. Writer s viewpoint

  28. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 7. Practice B Write two paragraphs on the topic: Is the exploration of space worthwhile? Use the ideas below and make your stance clear.

  29. Chapter 2.1. Argument and discussion 7. Practice B (example answer) There has been considerable debate about the value of space exploration, in view of the high costs involved. Supporters such as Donnet- Kammel (2005) claim that this is a vital method of collecting data about the structure of the universe, and additionally point out that there have been many practical benefits arising from the space programme, such as satellite communication. The example of the space station is also given as an instance of the value of the research programme in encouraging international co-operation. In contrast, critics (e.g. Soroka, 2000) point to the huge costs involved in launching space probes, claiming that these resources would be better devoted to solving the serious earthly problems of hunger and disease. Furthermore, they argue that much of the space programme is effectively a testing ground for new weapons, such as missiles, and brings little benefit to ordinary people. In the context of the current economic crisis, a more critical approach is clearly needed in deciding which of those projects have real value.

  30. Part 3. Accuracy in writing Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations

  31. Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations 1. Types of abbreviations Abbreviations are an important and expanding feature of contemporary English, widely used for convenience and space- saving. Students need to be familiar with general and academic abbreviations. Types of abbreviations (a) Shortened words: without the writer being aware of the original form Bus comes from omnibus . Refrigerator is still better in written English than the informal fridge . Public house is now very formal ( pub is acceptable), but television or TV should be used instead of the idiomatic telly . (b) Acronyms: initial letters of a name or phrase (e.g. AIDS = Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome). They are pronounced as words. (c) Other abbreviations :names of countries, organisations and companies (USA/ BBC/ IBM), and also abbreviations that are only found in written English (e.g. PTO).

  32. Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations 2. Some common abbreviations BSc CV DIY EU GM HRM human resource management ICT information and communications technology IMF International Monetary Fund MA Master of Arts PG Postgraduate PhD Doctor of Philosophy PLC public limited company PR public relations UG undergraduate UN United Nations VC Vice-Chancellor WTO World Trade Organisation Bachelor of Sciences curriculum vitae do-it-yourself European Union genetically modified

  33. Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations 3. Punctuation many standard abbreviations have a full stop after them to show that it is a shortened form lt. = litre govt. (government) co. (company) Oct. (October). no standard pattern for using full stops, so both BBC and B.B.C. are used. a tendency to use full stops less. The important thing is to employ a consistent style in your work.

  34. Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations 4. Duplicate abbreviations Abbreviations can be confusing. PC, for example, may stand for personal computer but also politically correct or something else. It is useful to be aware of these potential confusions. A good dictionary should be used to understand more unusual abbreviations.

  35. Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations 5. Abbreviations in writing anon. (no author) asap as soon as possible cf. compare ed. editor/ edition e.g. for example et al. (used for giving names of multiple authors) Fig. figure (for labelling charts and graphs) ibid. in the same place (to refer to source mentioned immediately before) anonymous i.e. that is thousand take careful note no date (i.e. an K NB. nd. undated source) op. cit. mentioned previously in the source and others p.a. yearly (per annum) pages postscript with reference to pp. PS re.

  36. Chapter 3.1. Abbreviations 6. Practice (a) information and communications technology / higher education/ and others (b) genetically modified/ for example (c) that is / the World Trade Organisation (d) note/ curricula vitae/ Human Resources (e) The Organisation for Economic and Cultural Development/ The United Arab Emirates (f) The European Union/ Value Added Tax (g) Doctor of Philosophy (thesis)/ Tuberculosis/ south east (h) Figure 4/ world wide web (i) Vice-Chancellor/ Postgraduate Certificate of Education (j) Public relations/ approximately/ $75,000 (k) With reference to/ Annual General Meeting/ as soon as possible (l) Professor/ Master of Science/ Master of Arts

  37. Part 4. Writing Models Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails

  38. Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails 1. Letters letters are still important for formal matters, or when an email address is unknown. They are also considered to be more reliable than emails. Due to its convenience email is increasingly used for semi-formal as well as informal communication. It is widely seen as a way of having a permanent record of an arrangement or discussion.

  39. a) address of sender b) address of recipient c) sender s reference d) date e) greeting f) Subject headline g) reason for writing h) further details i) request for response j) ending k) signature l) writer s name and job title

  40. Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails 1. Letters Note the following points: (a) The example above is addressed to a known individual and the ending is Yours sincerely . However, when writing to somebody whose name you do not know, e.g. The Manager, use Dear Sir and Yours faithfully. (b) A formal letter generally uses the family name in the greeting (Dear Ms Tan). Certain organisations may, however, use a first name with a family name or even a first name alone (Dear Jane Tan, Dear Jane). (c) If the sender includes a reference it is helpful to quote it in your reply.

  41. Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails 2. Practice A Write a reply to Mr Bramble making the following points: (a) You will attend the interview on the date given. (b) You would like to have the interview one hour later, due to train times.

  42. A reply to Mr Bramble

  43. Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails 3. Emails Starting If you know the recipient: Hi Sophie, Dear Sophie, Hello Sophie If you have not met the recipient it may be safer to use: Dear Sophie Gratton, Dear Ms Gratton, Dear Dr Gratton to send an email to a large group (e.g. colleagues): Hi everyone, Hello all Finishing In all cases to close the message you can use: Regards, Best wishes, Best regards You may also add a standard formula before this: Look forward to meeting next week/ Let me know if you need further information. The main text You can use common contractions (I ve, don t) and idiomatic language, but the normal rules for punctuation should be followed to avoid confusion. check for spelling and grammar problems before pressing the send key. Note that emails tend to be short, although longer documents may be added as attachments.

  44. Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails 4. Practice B Read the following and decide who the sender and recipient might be. Would Rachel expect a reply? Sender = student / recipient = teacher Reply is unlikely, unless recipient needs to comment on the attached paper.

  45. Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails 5. Practice C Write suitable emails for the following situations: (a) You are writing to Mark, a colleague at work, to ask him to suggest a time to meet you tomorrow Hi Mark, We need to schedule a short meeting tomorrow. What time would suit you? See you soon, Hello Tricia, I m looking for another source for this month s essay. Could you recommend something suitable? Best wishes, (b) Write to your teacher, Tricia James, to ask her to recommend another book for your current essay.

  46. Chapter 4.1. Formal letters and emails 5. Practice C Write suitable emails for the following situations: (c) Write to a group of classmates asking them how they want to celebrate the end of the course. Hi everyone, It s only a week before the end of the course what are we going to do to celebrate? Let me have your ideas I ll pass them on and hopefully get something good fixed up for Sat 12th! Dear Tim Carey, I ve never had this book, so I can t return it. Can you check your records please? (d) Write an email in response to the one shown in page 253. You have never had that book.

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