Understanding Motivation and Emotion Theories

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CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION AND
EMOTION
 
 
MOTIVATION
Def: an internal state that
activates behavior and directs
it toward a goal
Not readily observable
Can be intrinsic, extrinsic, or
both
INSTINCT THEORY
Proposed by William
McDougall (1908)
Instincts
: innate tendencies
that determine behavior
William James: human
instincts include cleanliness,
curiosity, parental love,
sociability, and sympathy
Do not explain behavior, they
label it
DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY
Motivation starts with a 
Need
:
biological or physiological
requirement of an organism
Need produces a 
Drive
: state
of tension produced by a need
that motivates an organism
toward a goal
D-R CONTINUED
Clark Hull
Organisms are driven by
Homeostasis
: the tendency
of all organisms to correct
imbalances and deviations
from their normal state
Says all drives extend from
biological needs
Overlooks fact that some
experiences are inherently
pleasurable
 
INCENTIVE THEORY
 
Incentive
: an external
stimulus, reinforcer, or reward
that motivates behavior
Drives push toward a goal,
incentives pull
COGNITIVE THEORY
Extrinsic motivation
:
engaging in activities that
either reduce biological needs
or help us obtain external
incentives
Intrinsic motivation
:
engaging in activities b/c they
are personally rewarding or
b/c they fulfill our beliefs or
expectations
Overjustification effect
:
intrinsic motivation declines
when extrinsic motivation is
used too much
 
HUNGER
Lateral hypothalamus
(LH)
: part of the
hypothalamus that produces
hunger signals
Ventromedial
hypothalamus (VMH)
: part
of the hypothalamus that can
cause one to stop eating
GLUCOSTATIC THEORY AND SET-POINT
Hypothalamus monitors
glucose in blood
Low levels activate LH,
pancreas releases insulin
Set-point
: the weight around
which your day-to-day weight
fluctuates
PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF HUNGER
External cues
Sight, smell, social pressures,
boredom, stress
OBESITY
Obese: 30% or more above
your ideal weight
Overweight: 20%
31.8% of all Americans are
obese
Obese tend to eat more based
on external cues
 
ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE
The desire to set challenging
goals and persist in reaching
those goals despite obstacles,
frustrations, or setbacks
McClelland’s Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT)
High achievers: less need for
intimacy; prefer to associate
with experts who will help
them achieve
FEAR OF FAILURE
Choose to take easy tasks or
impossible tasks w/no chance
of success
Make excuses
All to maintain a positive self-
image
FEAR OF SUCCESS
Martina Horner
Found fear of success was
greatest in women with above
average intelligence
Exists in both sexes
EXPECTANCY-VALUE THEORY
J.W. Atkinson
Expectancy: estimated
likelihood of success
Value: what the goal is worth
to you
You weigh these when
deciding
COMPETENCY THEORY
We choose tasks of moderate
difficulty to prove or improve
our competency
MASLOW’S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
Abraham Maslow (humanist)
Levels of needs
Fundamental needs
:
biological drives
Psychological needs
: urge
to belong, to give and receive
love, and to acquire self-
esteem
Self-actualization needs
:
needs to fulfill one’s unique
potential
Research does not support
claim that lower levels must be
met first
 
What? You gonna cry about it?
EXPRESSING EMOTIONS
Emotion
: a set of complex
reactions to stimuli involving
subjective feelings, physical
arousal, and observable
behavior
Charles Darwin said that all
people express certain basic
feelings in the 
same
 way
Some facial expressions are
innate
EXPRESSING CONTINUED
Carroll Izard: coding system
for assessing emotional states
James Averill: many everyday
emotional reactions are the
result of social expectations
and consequences---emotions
can be changed by learning
Expressions help describe
emotion, but do not explain
cause
 
JAMES-LANGE THEORY
William James and Carl Lange
Emotions are the perceptions
of certain internal bodily
changes
Body reactions form the basis
of labeling and experiencing
emotion
Critics: you don’t run first and
then feel fear
Physiological changes may
increase intensity of feeling
CANNON-BARD THEORY
Walter B. Cannon and Philip
Bard
Certain experiences activate
the thalamus and thalamus
sends signals to the cortex and
organs
Brain sends 2 signals: arousal
and experience of emotion
Thalamus is not involved in
emotion; the hypothalamus is
 
THE SCHACHTER-SINGER EXPERIMENT
Stanley Schachter and Jerome
Singer
Emotion depends on a
person’s perception of the
social situation
When we don’t understand our
physical reactions, we take
cues from the environment on
how to react
Perception and arousal create
emotion
 
OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY
 
Richard Solomon and John
Corbit
Homeostatic theory of
emotional reactions based on
classical conditioning
involving the sympathetic and
parasympathetic NS
When you remove a stimulus
that excites one emotion, a
swing is produced to an
opposite emotion
Emotions and physical
reactions are intertwined
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The chapter delves into various theories of motivation, including instinct theory, drive-reduction theory, incentive theory, and cognitive theory, explaining how internal states and external stimuli influence behavior. It also explores biological and social motives such as hunger and the roles of different parts of the hypothalamus. The content discusses intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as well as the overjustification effect that impacts motivation levels.


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  1. CHAPTER 12: MOTIVATION AND EMOTION

  2. SECTION 1: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

  3. MOTIVATION Def: an internal state that activates behavior and directs it toward a goal Not readily observable Can be intrinsic, extrinsic, or both

  4. INSTINCT THEORY Proposed by William McDougall (1908) Instincts: innate tendencies that determine behavior William James: human instincts include cleanliness, curiosity, parental love, sociability, and sympathy Do not explain behavior, they label it

  5. DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY Motivation starts with a Need: biological or physiological requirement of an organism Need produces a Drive: state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism toward a goal

  6. D-R CONTINUED Clark Hull Organisms are driven by Homeostasis: the tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state Says all drives extend from biological needs Overlooks fact that some experiences are inherently pleasurable

  7. INCENTIVE THEORY Incentive: an external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward that motivates behavior Drives push toward a goal, incentives pull

  8. COGNITIVE THEORY Extrinsic motivation: engaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives Intrinsic motivation: engaging in activities b/c they are personally rewarding or b/c they fulfill our beliefs or expectations Overjustification effect: intrinsic motivation declines when extrinsic motivation is used too much

  9. SECTION 2: BIOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL MOTIVES

  10. HUNGER Lateral hypothalamus (LH): part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH): part of the hypothalamus that can cause one to stop eating

  11. GLUCOSTATIC THEORY AND SET-POINT Hypothalamus monitors glucose in blood Low levels activate LH, pancreas releases insulin Set-point: the weight around which your day-to-day weight fluctuates

  12. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS OF HUNGER External cues Sight, smell, social pressures, boredom, stress

  13. OBESITY Obese: 30% or more above your ideal weight Overweight: 20% 31.8% of all Americans are obese Obese tend to eat more based on external cues

  14. SOCIAL MOTIVES

  15. ACHIEVEMENT MOTIVE The desire to set challenging goals and persist in reaching those goals despite obstacles, frustrations, or setbacks McClelland s Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) High achievers: less need for intimacy; prefer to associate with experts who will help them achieve

  16. FEAR OF FAILURE Choose to take easy tasks or impossible tasks w/no chance of success Make excuses All to maintain a positive self- image

  17. FEAR OF SUCCESS Martina Horner Found fear of success was greatest in women with above average intelligence Exists in both sexes

  18. EXPECTANCY-VALUE THEORY J.W. Atkinson Expectancy: estimated likelihood of success Value: what the goal is worth to you You weigh these when deciding

  19. COMPETENCY THEORY We choose tasks of moderate difficulty to prove or improve our competency

  20. MASLOWS HIERARCHY OF NEEDS Abraham Maslow (humanist) Levels of needs Fundamental needs: biological drives Psychological needs: urge to belong, to give and receive love, and to acquire self- esteem Self-actualization needs: needs to fulfill one s unique potential Research does not support claim that lower levels must be met first

  21. SECTION 3: EMOTIONS What? You gonna cry about it?

  22. EXPRESSING EMOTIONS Emotion: a set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physical arousal, and observable behavior Charles Darwin said that all people express certain basic feelings in the same way Some facial expressions are innate

  23. EXPRESSING CONTINUED Carroll Izard: coding system for assessing emotional states James Averill: many everyday emotional reactions are the result of social expectations and consequences---emotions can be changed by learning Expressions help describe emotion, but do not explain cause

  24. PHYSIOLOGICAL THEORIES

  25. JAMES-LANGE THEORY William James and Carl Lange Emotions are the perceptions of certain internal bodily changes Body reactions form the basis of labeling and experiencing emotion Critics: you don t run first and then feel fear Physiological changes may increase intensity of feeling

  26. CANNON-BARD THEORY Walter B. Cannon and Philip Bard Certain experiences activate the thalamus and thalamus sends signals to the cortex and organs Brain sends 2 signals: arousal and experience of emotion Thalamus is not involved in emotion; the hypothalamus is

  27. COGNITIVE THEORIES

  28. THE SCHACHTER-SINGER EXPERIMENT Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer Emotion depends on a person s perception of the social situation When we don t understand our physical reactions, we take cues from the environment on how to react Perception and arousal create emotion

  29. OPPONENT-PROCESS THEORY Richard Solomon and John Corbit Homeostatic theory of emotional reactions based on classical conditioning involving the sympathetic and parasympathetic NS When you remove a stimulus that excites one emotion, a swing is produced to an opposite emotion Emotions and physical reactions are intertwined

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