Identifying Logical Fallacies: Understanding Poor Reasoning
Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that can occur in formal or informal arguments. Examples include appeals to authority, appeal to the majority, appeal to pity, and appeal to force. Understanding these fallacies can help in recognizing and avoiding flawed arguments.
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LOGICAL FALLACIES
Logical Fallacy are instances of bad or poor reasoning. Fallacies are FORMAL or INFORMAL: A formal fallacy is an error that can be seen clearly an error based on the structure of the argument. For example: 1. People who are severely allergic to nuts, do not eat nuts. 2. Michael told me that he does not eat nuts. 3. Therefore, Michael is allergic to nuts.
According to Gordon Ramsey, eating meat is morally permissible. According to Einstein, abortion is always immoral. Appeal to Authority: when you claim that your conclusion is true because some irrelevant or is biased authority.
Jeremiah argues: Slavery is morally permissible. Why? Because virtually everyone considers slavery a moral practice. People have believed in God for millennia. I don t see how so many people could be wrong. Therefore, God exists. Appeal to the People: when your conclusion is based on the majority.
It is true that this man committed a crime; however, consider this: he never knew his father, his mother died, he has been poor for his whole life therefore, you should acquit him. Appeal to Pity: This is an appeal to your emotion. One who commits this fallacy wants you to accept a conclusion out of pity.
Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, if you do not convict this person, you may be this killer s next victim. Your boss: You should not go on vacation in August. Why? Well, let s just say that you might come back and find your desk clean. Appeal to force: This is an argument based upon a threat to persuade you into accepting a conclusion.
Scientists have not proven that ghosts do not exist. Therefore they exist. Since its inception in 1984, SETI has never found extraterrestrial intelligence. Therefore, ET do not exist. Appeal to Ignorance: This is an argument in which it is claimed that the conclusion is true (or false) because there is no evidence of the contrary.
Well, its time for a decision. Either you contribute $10 to our environmental fund, or you are on the side of environmental destruction? ~ Either you drove here or you walked. So if you didn t walk, you must have driven. ~ Either we enforce death penalty or we find convicted murderers back out on the streets. We cannot have murderers out on the streets. Therefore, we must enforce the death penalty. Either-Or/False Dichotomy
If God is love and love is blind, and Stevie Wonder is blind. Then Stevie Wonder is God! The doctor told me I need amino acids. But acids corrode your stomach. So I am not eating amino acids. All feathers are light. Whatever is light cannot be dark. Therefore, feathers cannot be dark. Logic is the study of arguments. My parents argue a lot. Therefore, I can learn logic by listening to my parents argue. Equivocation: when the conclusion rests on the equivocal use of a word or phrase.
Each member of the orchestra is excellent; therefore the orchestra is excellent. Drinking this glass of whiskey cannot harm me, so how can drinking harm me? Every brick of that house is relatively light. Therefore, the house must be light. Composition: if it applies to the individual it applies to the whole.
The union voted to strike. Therefore, each member voted to strike. Humans are the only animals capable of philosophical thinking. Therefore, every human being is capable of philosophical thinking. Division: if it applies to the whole it applies to the individual.
My doctor told me I should lose some weight. But why should I listen to him? He s fat! Professor Dawkins told us about the theory of evolution. But he s a Godless atheist! Therefore, evolution is false. Rousseau s theory of education? That monster dares speak of education! He abandoned his children and the tramp with whom he made them. Ad Hominem: when you attack the person rather than the argument. Ad Hominem can be Circumstantial and You Too.
Examples of circumstantial: The auto industry lobbyists have been arguing that tax reform is unnecessary. Just remember that it is in their interest to argue that way because it benefits the auto industry if there is no tax reform! I am not surprised that your mechanic suggests a complete engine overhaul. Do you know how much money he makes from that? I am not surprised you suggested that I join a gym. You are a personal trainer, right? More money for you, huh?
Examples of you too! You argue that eating meat is immoral. But you too used to eat meat. So why should I listen to you? A: Smoking causes all sorts of problems, not to mention it causes cancer. So, do not ever start smoking. B: You should talk! You smoke! (Or: You used to smoke).
Last night I had an argument with Frank and I wished him dead. This morning they found him dead in his apartment. God, if only I hadn t thought that! I killed him! False Cause: This is committed when the arguer concludes that one event causes another without giving good evidence for their causal connection.
We should oppose same sex marriage because if we allow it then eventually people would demand to marry animals. We cannot unlock our child from the closet because if we do, she will want to roam the house. If we let her roam the house, she will want to roam the neighborhood. If she roams the neighborhood, she will get picked up by a stranger in a van, who will sell her in a sex slavery ring in some other country. Therefore, we should keep her locked up in the closet. Slippery Slope: a conclusion is dismissed because it leads to a chain of undesirable consequences.
Paranormal activity is real because I have experienced what can only be described as paranormal activity. Objects that are less dense than water will float because such objects won t sink in. The Book of God is divinely inspired because it says so right in the third chapter: All scripture is divinely inspired. Of course smoking causes cancer. The smoke from cigarettes is a carcinogen. Begging the Question: when the premises assume the truth of the conclusion.
The theory of evolution says that man comes from monkeys. But how come monkeys don t give birth to human babies? The theory of evolution is absurd! We should stop using animals for scientific research. So you doesn t care about the progress of medicine? Zoe: What is your view on God? Mike: I don t believe in any gods. Zoe: Oh, so you think that we are here by accident, and all this design in nature is pure chance, and the universe just created itself? Straw Man: when you misinterpret or misrepresent the position of your opponent.
Last night I went to a town called Butte Creek and everywhere I went I saw children. So the inhabitants of that town are all children. This is the third apple that I taste from this basket and they are tasteless. Therefore, all the apple in the basket are tasteless. Hasty Generalization: This occurs when a generalization is made on the basis of an unrepresentative sample.
There is a lot of commotion regarding saving the environment. We cannot make this world an Eden. What will happen if it does become Eden? Adam and Eve got bored there! The crime in this city, has, in fact increased lately. However, let's consider that the weather has changed as well. Things change over time. Sometimes they are linked, sometimes they are not, but only time will tell. The Red Herring: when you are moving the target.
Teaching teenagers to stay away from drinking by getting them drunk is like teaching gun safety by playing Russian roulette. Making anyone play the Russian roulette is immoral. So teaching teenagers to stay away from drinking by getting them drunk is immoral. To say humans are immortal is like saying a car can run forever. A car will eventually expire, and so are humans. Complicated mechanisms, like a watch, require a maker; the universe is like a watch in many respects; then the universe must have a maker as well. False Analogy: An argument from analogy draws a conclusion about something on the basis of an analogy with some other thing. But sometimes the analogy is not relevant enough or false.
