Motivation

 
Motivation
 
UNIT-3
 
Motivation
 
Motivation is the word derived from the word ’motive’
which means needs, desires, wants or drives within the
individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to
actions to accomplish the goals. In the work goal
context the psychological factors stimulating the
people’s behavior can be -
desire for money
success
recognition
job-satisfaction
team work, etc
 
Defining Motivation
 
K
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The processes that account for an individual’s
intensity, direction, and persistence of effort
toward attaining a goal.
 
Importance of motivation in an
organization:
 
1. Greater efficiency:
Motivation enhances the efficiency of the employees and of
organization. When employees are motivated, they can
perform with commitment and dedication.
2. Reduction in absenteeism and labor turnover:
Motivated employees may not remain absent or leave the
organization. They develop a sense of belonging towards the
organization and thus improve their overall performance.
3. Team spirit:
Motivation improves team spirit of employees, and this
improves the work environ­ment and the overall performance
of the employee and the organization.
 
Importance of motivation in an
organization:
 
4. Reduction in wastages and breakages:
Motivated employees take great care in handling machines and
other resources. This will reduce wastages and breakages, thus
resulting in higher benefits to the organization.
5. Cordial relations:
Motivation enables cordial and healthy relationship in the
organization. Moti­vation helps reduce labor grievances and
disputes. It ensures sound relations between the man­agement and
the labor. It improves the overall efficiency of the organization.
6. Promotion of innovation:
Motivated employees use their initiative to find out innovative ways
in the performance of their operations. Such employees are more
creative and help the organization to gain the competitive
advantage.
 
 
Importance of motivation in an
organization:
 
7. Optimum use of resources:
Motivation leads to greater employee involvement and lesser
wast­ages. This leads to optimum utilization of resources.
8. Corporate image:
Motivated employees are more loyal to the organization. They
work with a sense of commitment and dedication. This
improves the overall performance of the employee, which
enables better results for the company. This results in better
relations with all the stakeholders.
 
Characteristics/Features of
Motivation:
 
1. 
Interaction between the individual and the situation:
Motivation is not a personal trait but an interaction between the individual and
the situation.
 
2. Goal-directed behavior:
Motivation leads to an action that is goal oriented. Motivation leads to
accomplishment of organizational goals and satisfaction of personal needs.
 
3. Systems oriented:
Motivation is influenced by two forces:
a. Internal forces:
These forces are internal to the individual, i.e., their needs, wants and nature.
b. External forces:
These forces are external to the individual, which may be organizational related
such as management philosophy, organizational structure, and superior-
subordinate relationship, and also the forces found in the external environment
such as culture, customs, religion and values.
 
Characteristics/Features of
Motivation:
 
4. Positive or negative:
Positive motivation or the carrot approach offers positive incentives
such as appreciation, promotion, status and incentives. Negative
motivation or stick approach emphasizes penalties, fines and
punishments.
5. Dynamic and complex in nature:
Human behavior is highly complex, and it becomes extremely
difficult to understand people at work. Motivation is a dynamic and
complex process.
 
THEORIES OF
MOTIVATION
 
10
 
Content
 
Theories:
 
1
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Human 
behavior 
is 
goal-directed. 
Motivation
cause 
goal-directed 
behaviour. 
It 
is 
through 
motivation 
that 
needs 
can 
be 
handled
and 
tackled 
purposely. 
This can 
be 
understood 
by 
understanding 
the 
hierarchy 
of
needs 
by 
manager. 
The 
needs 
of 
individual 
serves 
as 
a 
driving 
force 
in 
human
behaviour. 
Therefore, 
a 
manager 
must 
understand 
the 
“hierarchy 
of 
needs”
. 
Maslow
has 
proposed 
“The 
Need 
Hierarchy
 
Model
.
 
11
 
12
 
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Herzberg
 
and
 
his
 
associates,
 
who
 
studied
 
the
 
variables
 
that
 
are
 
perceived
 
to
 
be
desirable 
to 
achieve 
goals 
and 
the 
undesirable 
conditions 
to 
avoid. 
In 
this
context, 
the 
study 
was 
conducted 
wherein 
the 
experiences 
and 
feelings 
of 
200
engineers 
and 
accountants 
were
 
analyzed.
They 
were 
asked 
to 
share 
their 
previous 
job 
experiences 
in
which 
they 
felt 
“exceptionally 
good” 
or 
“exceptionally 
bad.
Through 
this 
study,
Herzberg 
concluded 
that 
there 
are 
two 
job conditions 
independent 
of 
each
other 
that 
affect 
the 
behavior
 
differently.
 
13
 
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dissatisfaction.
 
14
 
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.
Thus, 
Herzberg’s 
Motivation-Hygiene 
Theory 
studied 
the 
variables 
which
were 
responsible 
for 
the 
level 
of 
satisfaction 
and had 
been 
applied 
in 
the 
industry 
that
has 
given 
several 
new
 
insights.
 
15
 
3
.
M
c
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and’
s
 
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s
 
T
h
eory
:
 
McCle
l
l
a
nd
s
 
Ne
e
d
s
 
Th
e
ory
 
w
a
s
 
proposed 
by 
a 
psychologist 
David 
McClelland, 
who 
believed 
that 
the 
specific
 
needs
of 
the  
individual 
are  
acquired  
over  
a  
period 
of 
time 
and  
gets  
molded
 
with 
one’s
experience 
of 
the 
life. 
McClelland’s 
Needs  
Theory 
is 
sometimes 
referred 
to 
as
 
Three
Need 
theory 
or 
Learned 
Needs
 
Theory.
 
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12
 
they
 
are
 
outspoken, 
forceful, 
demanding, 
practical/realistic-not 
sentimental, 
and
 
like 
to 
get
involved 
in 
the
 
conversations.
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v
e
 
a
n
i
n
t
e
n
s
e
 
d
e
s
i
r
e
 
t
o
 
a
c
h
i
e
v
e
.
 
H
e
 
h
a
s
 
i
d
e
n
t
i
f
i
e
d
 
t
h
e
 
f
o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g
 
c
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
s
 
o
f
 
h
i
g
h
a
c
h
i
e
v
e
r
s
:
 
17
 
High 
achievers 
take 
the 
moderate 
risks, 
i.e.
 
a 
calculated 
risk 
while 
performing
the 
activities 
in 
the 
management 
context. 
This 
is opposite 
to 
the 
belief 
that 
high
achievers take 
high
 
risk.
High 
achievers 
seek 
to 
obtain 
the 
immediate 
feedback 
for 
the 
work 
done 
by
them, 
so 
as 
to 
know 
their 
progress 
towards 
the 
goal. 
Once 
the 
goal 
is 
set, 
the
high 
achiever puts 
himself 
completely 
into 
the 
job, 
until 
it 
gets 
completed
successfully. 
He 
will 
not 
be 
satisfied 
until 
he 
has 
given his 
100% 
in 
the 
task
assigned 
to 
him.
Hence, 
McClelland’s 
Needs 
Theory 
posits 
that 
the 
person’s 
level
 
of
effectiveness 
and 
motivation 
is 
greatly 
influenced 
by 
these 
three 
basic
 
needs.
 
18
 
4
.
A
l
d
e
r
f
e
r
s
 
E
R
G
 
T
h
e
o
r
y
:
 
Alderfer’s 
ERG 
Theory 
is 
the 
extension 
of 
Maslow’s
Needs 
Hierarchy, 
wherein 
the 
Maslow’s 
five 
needs 
are 
categorized 
into
three 
categories, 
Viz. 
Existence 
Needs, 
Relatedness 
Needs, 
and 
Growth
 
Needs.
An 
American 
psychologist 
Clayton 
Paul 
Alderfer 
had
proposed 
this 
theory 
and 
believed 
that 
each 
need 
carries 
some 
value 
and 
hence
can 
be 
classified 
as 
lower-order 
needs 
and 
higher-order 
needs. 
He 
also 
found
some 
level 
of 
overlapping 
in 
the 
physiological, 
security 
and 
social 
needs 
along
with 
an 
invisible 
line 
of 
demarcation 
between 
the 
social, 
esteem 
and 
self-
actualization 
needs.
 
This 
led 
to 
the 
formation 
Alderfer’s 
ERG 
theory, 
which
comprises 
of 
the 
condensed 
form 
of 
Maslow’s
 
needs.
E
x
i
s
t
e
n
c
e
 
N
e
e
d
s
:
 
T
h
e
 
e
x
i
s
t
e
n
c
e
 
n
e
e
d
s
 
c
o
m
p
r
i
s
e
s
 
o
f
 
a
l
l
 
t
h
o
s
e
 
n
e
e
d
s
 
t
h
a
t
 
r
e
l
a
t
e
t
o
 
t
h
e
 
p
h
y
s
i
o
l
o
g
i
c
a
l
 
a
n
d
 
s
a
f
e
t
y
 
a
s
p
e
c
t
s
 
o
f
 
h
u
m
a
n
 
b
e
i
n
g
s
 
a
n
d
 
a
r
e
 
a
p
r
e
r
e
q
u
i
s
i
t
e
 
f
o
r
 
t
h
e
 
s
u
r
v
i
v
a
l
.
 
19
 
Thus, 
both 
the 
physiological 
and 
safety 
needs 
of 
Maslow 
are 
grouped 
into 
one
category 
because 
of 
their 
same 
nature 
and 
a 
similar 
impact 
on 
the 
behavior 
of
an
 
individual.
R
e
l
a
t
e
d
n
e
s
s
 
N
e
e
d
s
:
 
T
h
e
 
r
e
l
a
t
e
d
n
e
s
s
 
n
e
e
d
s
 
r
e
f
e
r
 
t
o
 
t
h
e
 
s
o
c
i
a
l
 
n
e
e
d
s
,
 
t
h
a
t
 
a
n
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
 
s
e
e
k
s
 
t
o
 
e
s
t
a
b
l
i
s
h
 
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
s
 
w
i
t
h
 
t
h
o
s
e
 
f
o
r
 
w
h
o
m
 
h
e
 
c
a
r
e
s
.
T
h
e
s
e
 
n
e
e
d
s
 
c
o
v
e
r
 
t
h
e
 
M
a
s
l
o
w
s
 
s
o
c
i
a
l
 
n
e
e
d
s
 
a
n
d
 
a
 
p
a
r
t
 
o
f
 
e
s
t
e
e
m
 
n
e
e
d
s
,
d
e
r
i
v
e
d
 
f
r
o
m
 
t
h
e
 
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
h
i
p
 
w
i
t
h
 
o
t
h
e
r
 
p
e
o
p
l
e
.
G
r
o
w
t
h
 
N
e
e
d
s
:
 
T
h
e
 
g
r
o
w
t
h
 
n
e
e
d
s
 
c
o
v
e
r
 
M
a
s
l
o
w
s
 
s
e
l
f
-
a
c
t
u
a
l
i
z
a
t
i
o
n
 
n
e
e
d
s
 
a
s
w
e
l
l
 
a
s
 
a
 
p
a
r
t
 
o
f
 
e
s
t
e
e
m
 
n
e
e
d
s
 
w
h
i
c
h
 
a
r
e
 
i
n
t
e
r
n
a
l
 
t
o
 
t
h
e
 
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
,
 
s
u
c
h
 
a
s
 
a
f
e
e
l
i
n
g
 
o
f
 
b
e
i
n
g
 
u
n
i
q
u
e
,
 
p
e
r
s
o
n
n
e
l
 
g
r
o
w
t
h
,
 
e
t
c
.
Thus, 
growth 
needs 
are 
those 
needs 
that 
influence
 
an
individual
 
to
 
explore
 
his
 
maximum
 
potential
 
in
 
the
 
existing
 
environment.
 
20
 
P
r
o
c
e
s
s
 
T
h
e
o
r
i
e
s
:
 
1
.
V
r
o
o
m
s
 
E
x
p
e
c
t
a
n
c
y
 
T
h
e
o
r
y
 
:
V
r
o
o
m
s
 
E
x
p
e
c
t
a
n
c
y
 
T
h
e
o
r
y
 
w
a
s
p
r
o
p
o
s
e
d
 
b
y
 
V
i
c
t
o
r
.
 
H
.
 
V
r
o
o
m
,
 
w
h
o
 
b
e
l
i
e
v
e
d
 
t
h
a
t
 
p
e
o
p
l
e
 
a
r
e
 
m
o
t
i
v
a
t
e
d
 
t
o
p
e
r
f
o
r
m
 
a
c
t
i
v
i
t
i
e
s
 
t
o
 
a
c
h
i
e
v
e
 
s
o
m
e
 
g
o
a
l
 
t
o
 
t
h
e
 
e
x
t
e
n
t
 
t
h
e
y
 
e
x
p
e
c
t
 
t
h
a
t
 
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
a
c
t
i
o
n
s
 
o
n
 
t
h
e
i
r
 
p
a
r
t
 
w
o
u
l
d
 
h
e
l
p
 
t
h
e
m
 
t
o
 
a
c
h
i
e
v
e
 
t
h
e
 
g
o
a
l
.
Vroom’s 
Expectancy 
Theory 
is 
based 
on the 
assumption 
that 
an
individual’s 
behavior 
results 
from 
the 
choices 
made 
by 
him 
with 
respect 
to 
the
alternative 
course 
of 
action, 
which 
is 
related 
to 
the 
psychological 
events
occurring 
simultaneously 
with 
the behavior. 
This 
means 
an 
individual 
selects 
a
certain 
behavior 
over 
the 
other 
behaviors 
with 
an 
expectation 
of 
getting
results, 
the 
one 
desired 
for. 
Thus, 
Vroom’s 
Expectancy 
Theory 
has 
its 
roots 
in
the 
cognitive 
concept, 
i.e. 
how 
an 
individual 
processes 
the 
different 
elements
 
of
motivation.
 
21
 
T
h
i
s
t
h
e
o
r
y
i
s
b
u
i
l
t
a
r
o
u
n
d
t
h
e
c
o
n
c
e
p
t
o
f
v
a
l
e
n
c
e
,
i
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t
a
l
i
t
y
,
a
n
d
E
x
p
e
c
t
a
n
c
y
 
a
n
d
,
 
t
h
e
r
e
f
o
r
e
,
 
i
s
 
o
f
t
e
n
 
c
a
l
l
e
d
 
a
s
 
V
I
E
 
t
h
e
o
r
y
.
The 
algebraic 
representation 
of 
Vroom’s 
Expectancy 
theory
 
is:
M
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n
 
(
f
o
r
c
e
)
 
=
 
V
a
l
e
n
c
e
 
x
 
E
x
p
e
c
t
a
n
c
y
 
22
 
19
 
E
x
p
e
c
t
a
n
c
y
 
 
a
 
p
e
r
s
o
n
s
 
b
e
l
i
e
f
 
t
h
a
t
 
m
o
r
e
 
e
f
f
o
r
t
 
w
i
l
l
 
r
e
s
u
l
t
 
i
n
 
s
u
c
c
e
s
s
.
 
I
f
 
y
o
u
w
o
r
k
 
h
a
r
d
e
r
,
 
i
t
 
w
i
l
l
 
r
e
s
u
l
t
 
i
n
 
b
e
t
t
e
r
 
p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
.
I
n
s
t
r
u
m
e
n
t
a
l
i
t
y
t
h
e
p
e
r
s
o
n
s
b
e
l
i
e
f
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
r
e
i
s
a
c
o
n
n
e
c
t
i
o
n
b
e
t
w
e
e
n
a
c
t
i
v
i
t
y
 
a
n
d
 
g
o
a
l
.
 
I
f
 
y
o
u
 
p
e
r
f
o
r
m
 
w
e
l
l
,
 
y
o
u
 
w
i
l
l
 
g
e
t
 
r
e
w
a
r
d
.
V
a
l
e
n
c
e
 
 
t
h
e
 
d
e
g
r
e
e
 
t
o
 
w
h
i
c
h
 
a
 
p
e
r
s
o
n
 
v
a
l
u
e
s
 
t
h
e
 
r
e
w
a
r
d
,
 
t
h
e
 
r
e
s
u
l
t
s
 
o
f
s
u
c
c
e
s
s
.
2
.
A
d
a
m
s
 
E
q
u
i
t
y
 
T
h
e
o
r
y
:
The 
Adam’s 
Equity 
Theory 
posits 
that 
people 
maintain 
a
fair 
relationship 
between 
the 
performance 
and 
rewards 
in 
comparison 
to 
others.
In 
other 
words,  
an  
employee  
gets  
de-motivated 
by  
the 
job 
and  
his 
employer
 
in
case 
 
his  
inputs  
are    
more  
than  
the  
outputs.  
The   
Adam’s  
Equity  
Theory
 
was
proposed 
by 
John 
Stacey 
Adams, 
and 
is 
based 
on 
the 
following 
assumptions:
Individuals   
make    
contributions   
(inputs)   
for   
which   
they   
certain
 
rewards
 
(outcomes).
 
To 
validate 
the 
exchange, 
an 
individual 
compares 
his 
input 
and
outcomes 
with 
those 
of 
others 
and 
try 
to 
rectify 
the 
inequality. 
There 
are 
three 
types
of 
exchange 
relationships 
that 
arise 
when 
an 
individual 
input/outcomes 
are
compared 
with 
that of 
the 
other
 
persons.
1
.
O
v
e
r
p
a
i
d
 
I
n
e
q
u
i
t
y
:
 
W
h
e
n
 
a
n
 
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
 
p
e
r
c
e
i
v
e
s
 
t
h
a
t
 
h
i
s
 
o
u
t
c
o
m
e
s
 
a
r
e
 
m
o
r
e
 
a
s
c
o
m
p
a
r
e
d
 
t
o
 
h
i
s
 
i
n
p
u
t
s
,
 
i
n
 
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
 
t
o
 
o
t
h
e
r
s
.
 
T
h
e
 
o
v
e
r
p
a
i
d
 
i
n
e
q
u
i
t
y
 
c
a
n
 
b
e
 
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
e
d
a
s
:
 
2
.
U
n
d
e
r
p
a
i
d
 
I
n
e
q
u
i
t
y
:
 
W
h
e
n
 
a
n
 
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
 
p
e
r
c
e
i
v
e
s
 
t
h
a
t
 
h
i
s
 
o
u
t
c
o
m
e
s
 
a
r
e
 
l
e
s
s
 
a
s
c
o
m
p
a
r
e
d
 
t
o
 
h
i
s
 
i
n
p
u
t
s
,
 
i
n
 
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
 
t
o
 
o
t
h
e
r
s
.
 
T
h
e
 
U
n
d
e
r
p
a
i
d
 
E
q
u
i
t
y
 
c
a
n
 
b
e
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
e
d
 
a
s
:
 
24
 
3
.
E
q
u
i
t
y
:
 
A
n
 
i
n
d
i
v
i
d
u
a
l
 
p
e
r
c
e
i
v
e
s
 
t
h
a
t
 
h
i
s
 
o
u
t
c
o
m
e
s
 
i
n
 
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
 
t
o
 
h
i
s
 
i
n
p
u
t
s
 
a
r
e
 
 
e
q
u
a
l
t
o
 
t
h
o
s
e
 
o
f
 
o
t
h
e
r
s
.
 
T
h
e
 
e
q
u
i
t
y
 
c
a
n
 
b
e
 
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
e
d
 
a
s
 
Thus, 
Adam’s 
equity theory 
shows 
the 
level 
of 
motivation 
among 
the
individuals 
in 
the 
working 
environment. 
An 
individual 
is 
said 
to 
be 
highly
motivated 
if 
he 
perceives 
to 
be 
treated 
fairly. While 
the feelings 
of de-motivation
arise, 
if 
an 
individual 
perceives 
to 
be 
treated 
unfairly 
in 
the
 
organization.
 
25
 
3
.
G
O
A
L
 
S
E
T
T
I
N
G
 
T
H
E
O
R
Y
:
 
I
n
 
1
9
6
0
s
,
 
E
d
w
i
n
 
L
o
c
k
e
 
p
u
t
 
f
o
r
w
a
r
d
 
t
h
e
 
G
o
a
l
-
s
e
t
t
i
n
g
 
t
h
e
o
r
y
 
o
f
m
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n
.
 
T
h
i
s
 
t
h
e
o
r
y
 
s
t
a
t
e
s
 
t
h
a
t
 
g
o
a
l
 
s
e
t
t
i
n
g
 
i
s
 
e
s
s
e
n
t
i
a
l
l
y
 
l
i
n
k
e
d
 
t
o
 
t
a
s
k
p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
.
 
I
t
 
s
t
a
t
e
s
 
t
h
a
t
 
s
p
e
c
i
f
i
c
 
a
n
d
 
c
h
a
l
l
e
n
g
i
n
g
 
g
o
a
l
s
 
a
l
o
n
g
 
w
i
t
h
a
p
p
r
o
p
r
i
a
t
e
 
f
e
e
d
b
a
c
k
 
c
o
n
t
r
i
b
u
t
e
 
t
o
 
h
i
g
h
e
r
 
a
n
d
 
b
e
t
t
e
r
 
t
a
s
k
 
p
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e
.
 
T
h
e
i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
 
f
e
a
t
u
r
e
s
 
o
f
 
g
o
a
l
-
s
e
t
t
i
n
g
 
t
h
e
o
r
y
 
a
r
e
 
a
s
 
f
o
l
l
o
w
s
:
T
h
e
 
w
i
l
l
i
n
g
n
e
s
s
 
t
o
 
w
o
r
k
 
t
o
w
a
r
d
s
 
a
t
t
a
i
n
m
e
n
t
 
o
f
 
g
o
a
l
 
i
s
 
m
a
i
n
s
o
u
r
c
e
 
o
f
 
j
o
b
 
m
o
t
i
v
a
t
i
o
n
.
 
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up 
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attainment 
of 
next
 
goal.
 
22
 
The 
more 
challenging 
the 
goal, 
the 
greater 
is 
the 
reward 
generally 
and
the 
more 
is 
the 
passion 
for 
achieving 
it. 
Better 
and 
appropriate 
feedback 
of 
results
directs 
the 
employee 
behaviour 
and 
contributes to 
higher 
performance 
than
absence 
of
 
feedback.
Feedback 
is 
a 
means 
of 
gaining 
reputation, making 
clarifications 
and
regulating 
goal 
difficulties. 
It 
helps 
employees 
to 
work 
with 
more 
involvement
and 
leads 
to 
greater 
job 
satisfaction.
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27
 
While, 
lower 
the 
level 
of 
self-efficiency, 
less 
will 
be 
the 
efforts 
put 
in 
by 
the
individual 
or 
he 
might 
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Goals 
are 
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broadcasted.
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should 
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set-self 
by 
individual 
rather 
than
 
designated.
Individual’s 
set 
goals 
should 
be 
consistent 
with 
the 
organizational 
goals 
and
vision.
 
28
 
4.Reinforcement
 
Theory:
 
This 
theory 
is 
based 
on 
the 
concepts 
of 
operand 
conditioning
developed 
by 
B.F. 
Skinner. 
It 
argues 
that 
the 
behavior 
of 
people 
is 
largely
determined 
by 
its 
consequence. 
In 
other 
words, 
those 
actions 
that 
tend 
to 
have
positive 
or 
pleasant 
consequences 
tend 
to 
be 
repeated 
more 
often 
in 
future, 
while
those 
actions 
that 
tend 
to 
have 
repeated 
negative 
or 
unpleasant 
consequences 
are
less 
likely 
to 
be 
repeated
 
again.
The 
reinforcement theory 
suggests 
that 
managers 
should 
try 
to
structure 
the 
contingencies 
of 
rewards 
and 
punishments 
on the 
job 
in 
such 
a 
way
that 
the 
consequences 
of 
effective 
job 
behavior 
are 
positive 
while 
the
consequences 
of 
ineffective 
work 
behavior 
are 
negative 
or 
unpleasant. 
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focus
of 
this 
approach 
is 
upon 
changing 
or 
modifying 
the 
behavior 
of 
people 
on the  
job.
that 
is 
why 
it 
is 
also 
regarded 
as 
organizational 
behavior
 
modification.
 
29
 
30
 
The 
basic 
notion 
underlying 
reinforcement 
theory 
is 
the 
concept 
of
reinforcement 
itself. 
An 
event 
is 
said 
to 
be 
reinforcing 
if 
the 
event 
following
some 
behavior 
makes 
the 
behavior 
more 
likely 
to 
occur 
again 
in 
the
 
future.
In 
organizational 
settings, 
four 
basic 
kinds 
of 
reinforcement 
can 
result
 
from
behavior
 
which
 
is
 
discussed
 
briefly
 
as
 
under:
1.
P
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.
4.
E
x
t
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n
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:
 
 
U
s
e
d
 
t
o
 
 
w
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u
n
d
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i
g
n
o
r
i
n
g
 
o
r
 
n
o
t
reinforcing 
that
 
behavior.
 
31
 
32
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Motivation is the driving force behind individual behavior in organizations, influencing intensity, direction, and persistence of effort towards goals. It plays a crucial role in enhancing efficiency, reducing absenteeism and turnover, fostering team spirit, minimizing wastages, promoting innovation, optimizing resource use, and enhancing corporate image. These factors collectively contribute to a positive work environment and organizational success.


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  1. Motivation UNIT-3

  2. Motivation Motivation is the word derived from the word motive which means needs, desires, wants or drives within the individuals. It is the process of stimulating people to actions to accomplish the goals. In the work goal context the psychological factors stimulating the people s behavior can be - desire for money success recognition job-satisfaction team work, etc

  3. Defining Motivation Motivation The processes that account for an individual s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal. Key Elements Intensity: how hard a person tries Direction: toward beneficial goal Persistence: how long a person tries

  4. Importance of motivation in an organization: 1. Greater efficiency: Motivation enhances the efficiency of the employees and of organization. When employees are motivated, they can perform with commitment and dedication. 2. Reduction in absenteeism and labor turnover: Motivated employees may not remain absent or leave the organization. They develop a sense of belonging towards the organization and thus improve their overall performance. 3. Team spirit: Motivation improves team spirit of employees, and this improves the work environment and the overall performance of the employee and the organization.

  5. Importance of motivation in an organization: 4. Reduction in wastages and breakages: Motivated employees take great care in handling machines and other resources. This will reduce wastages and breakages, thus resulting in higher benefits to the organization. 5. Cordial relations: Motivation enables cordial and healthy relationship in the organization. Motivation helps reduce labor grievances and disputes. It ensures sound relations between the management and the labor. It improves the overall efficiency of the organization. 6. Promotion of innovation: Motivated employees use their initiative to find out innovative ways in the performance of their operations. Such employees are more creative and help the organization to gain the competitive advantage.

  6. Importance of motivation in an organization: 7. Optimum use of resources: Motivation leads to greater employee involvement and lesser wastages. This leads to optimum utilization of resources. 8. Corporate image: Motivated employees are more loyal to the organization. They work with a sense of commitment and dedication. This improves the overall performance of the employee, which enables better results for the company. This results in better relations with all the stakeholders.

  7. Characteristics/Features of Motivation: 1. Interaction between the individual and the situation: Motivation is not a personal trait but an interaction between the individual and the situation. 2. Goal-directed behavior: Motivation leads to an action that is goal oriented. Motivation leads to accomplishment of organizational goals and satisfaction of personal needs. 3. Systems oriented: Motivation is influenced by two forces: a. Internal forces: These forces are internal to the individual, i.e., their needs, wants and nature. b. External forces: These forces are external to the individual, which may be organizational related such as management philosophy, organizational structure, and superior- subordinate relationship, and also the forces found in the external environment such as culture, customs, religion and values.

  8. Characteristics/Features of Motivation: 4. Positive or negative: Positive motivation or the carrot approach offers positive incentives such as appreciation, promotion, status and incentives. Negative motivation or stick approach emphasizes penalties, fines and punishments. 5. Dynamic and complex in nature: Human behavior is highly complex, and it becomes extremely difficult to understand people at work. Motivation is a dynamic and complex process.

  9. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

  10. 10

  11. ContentTheories: 1.Maslow HierarchyOfNeeds: Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper "ATheory of Human Motivation" in psychological Review. Maslow subsequently extended the idea to include his observationsof humans'innatecuriosity. Human behavior is goal-directed. Motivation cause goal-directed behaviour. It is through motivation that needs can be handled and tackled purposely. This can be understood by understanding the hierarchy of needs by manager. The needs of individual serves as a driving force in human behaviour. Therefore, amanager must understand the hierarchy of needs . Maslow hasproposed TheNeedHierarchy Model . 11

  12. 12

  13. 2.Herzbergs Motivation-HygieneTheory: The Herzberg s Motivation-Hygiene Theory is given by Fredrick Herzberg and his associates, who studied the variables that are perceived to be desirable to achieve goals and the undesirable conditions to avoid. In this context, the study was conducted wherein the experiences and feelings of 200 engineersandaccountantswereanalyzed. They were asked to share their previous job experiences in which they felt exceptionally good or exceptionally bad. Through this study, Herzberg concluded that there are two job conditions independent of each other that affect thebehaviordifferently. 13

  14. The first set of job conditions has been referred to as maintenance or hygiene factor, wherein the same job conditions provide the same level of dissatisfaction, in case the conditions are absent, however, their presence does not motivatein astrongway. The second setof job conditions is referred to asmotivational factors, which primarily operateto build strongmotivation andhigh jobsatisfaction, but their absencedoesnot result in strongdissatisfaction. 14

  15. Hygiene Factors: Herzberg identified ten maintenance or hygiene factors, that are not intrinsic parts of ajob, but are related to the conditions in which the job has to beperformed. Theseare company policy and administration, technical supervision, job security, working conditions, interpersonal relationship with peers, subordinates andsupervisors,salary,job security,personal life, etc. Motivational factors: These factors have a positive effect on the functioning of the employees in the organization. There are six factors that motivate employees: Achievement, Recognition, Advancement, Work-itself, Possibility of growth and Responsibility. An increase in these factors satisfies the employees and the decrease in thesewill not affectthe level ofsatisfaction. Thus, Herzberg s Motivation-Hygiene Theory studied the variables which were responsible for the level of satisfaction and had been applied in the industry that hasgiven severalnew insights. 15

  16. 3.McClellands Needs Theory: McClelland s Needs Theory was proposed by a psychologist David McClelland, who believed that the specific needs of the individual are acquired over a period of time and gets moldedwith one s experience of the life. McClelland s Needs Theory is sometimes referred to asThree Need theory or Learned NeedsTheory. Need for Power (n-pow): What is Power? Power is the ability to induce or influence the behavior of others.Thepeople with high power needsseekhigh-level positions in the organization, soasto exerciseinfluence andcontrol over others. Generally, 12 theyare

  17. outspoken,forceful, demanding,practical/realistic-not sentimental, andlike to get involved in theconversations. Need for Affiliation (n-affil): People with high need for affiliation derives pleasure from being loved by all and tend to avoid the pain of being rejected. Since, the human beings are social animals, they like to interact and be with others where they feel, people accept them. Thus,people with theseneedslike to maintain the pleasant social relationships, enjoy the sense of intimacy and like to help andconsoleothersatthetime oftrouble. Need for Achievement (n-ach): McClelland found that some people have an intense desire to achieve. He has identified the following characteristics of high achievers: 17

  18. High achieverstakethemoderaterisks,i.e.acalculatedrisk while performing the activities in the management context. This is opposite to the belief that high achieverstakehigh risk. High achievers seek to obtain the immediate feedback for the work done by them, so as to know their progress towards the goal. Once the goal is set, the high achiever puts himself completely into the job, until it gets completed successfully. He will not be satisfied until he has given his 100% in the task assignedto him. Hence,McClelland s NeedsTheorypositsthat theperson s level of effectiveness and motivation is greatly influenced by these three basicneeds. 18

  19. 4.Alderfers ERGTheory: Alderfer s ERG Theory is the extension of Maslow s Needs Hierarchy, wherein the Maslow s five needs are categorized into three categories,Viz. ExistenceNeeds,RelatednessNeeds,andGrowth Needs. An American psychologist Clayton Paul Alderfer had proposed this theory and believed that each need carries some value and hence can be classified as lower-order needs and higher-order needs. He also found some level of overlapping in the physiological, security and social needs along with an invisible line of demarcation between the social, esteem and self- actualization needs. This led to the formation Alderfer s ERG theory, which comprisesof thecondensedform of Maslow sneeds. Existence Needs: The existence needs comprises of all those needs that relate to the physiological and safety aspects of human beings and are a prerequisitefor thesurvival. 19

  20. Thus, both the physiological and safety needs of Maslow are grouped into one category because of their same nature and a similar impact on the behavior of anindividual. Relatedness Needs: The relatedness needs refer to the social needs, that an individual seeks to establish relationships with those for whom he cares. These needs cover the Maslow s social needs and a part of esteem needs, derivedfrom therelationship with otherpeople. Growth Needs:The growth needs cover Maslow s self-actualization needs as well asapart of esteemneedswhich are internal to the individual, such asa feeling of beingunique, personnelgrowth,etc. Thus,growth needsarethoseneedsthat influence an individual to explorehis maximum potentialin theexisting environment. 20

  21. ProcessTheories: 1.Vroom s Expectancy Theory :Vroom s Expectancy Theory was proposed by Victor. H. Vroom, who believed that people are motivated to perform activities to achieve some goal to the extent they expect that certain actions ontheir part would help them to achievethegoal. Vroom s Expectancy Theory is based on the assumption that an individual s behavior results from the choices made by him with respect to the alternative course of action, which is related to the psychological events occurring simultaneously with the behavior. This means an individual selects a certain behavior over the other behaviors with an expectation of getting results, the one desired for. Thus, Vroom s Expectancy Theory has its roots in thecognitive concept,i.e.how anindividual processesthedifferent elements of motivation. 21

  22. This theory is built around the concept of valence, instrumentality, and Expectancy and, therefore, is often called as VIEtheory. The algebraic representation of Vroom s Expectancy theoryis: Motivation (force) = Valence xExpectancy 22

  23. Expectancy a persons belief that more effort will result in success. If you work harder,it will result in betterperformance. Instrumentality the person s belief that there is a connection between activity and goal. If you perform well, you willget reward. Valence the degree to which a person values the reward, the results of success. 2.Adam sEquityTheory: The Adam s Equity Theory posits that people maintain a fair relationship between the performance and rewards in comparison to others. In other words, an employee gets de-motivated by thejob and his employer in case his inputs are more than the outputs. The Adam s Equity Theory was proposed by John Stacey Adams, and is based on the following assumptions: Individuals make contributions (inputs) for which they certain rewards 19 (outcomes).

  24. To validate the exchange, an individual compares his input and outcomes with those of others and try to rectify the inequality. There are three types of exchange relationships that arise when an individual input/outcomes are comparedwith that of theotherpersons. 1.Overpaid Inequity: When an individual perceives that his outcomes are more as compared to his inputs, in relation to others. The overpaid inequity can beexpressed as: 2.Underpaid Inequity: When an individual perceives that his outcomes are lessas compared to his inputs, in relation to others. The Underpaid Equity can be expressedas: 24

  25. 3.Equity: An individual perceives that his outcomes in relation to his inputs are equal to those of others. The equity can be expressedas Thus, Adam s equity theory shows the level of motivation among the individuals in the working environment. An individual is said to be highly motivated if he perceives to be treated fairly. While the feelings of de-motivation arise,if anindividual perceivesto betreatedunfairly in theorganization. 25

  26. 3.GOAL SETTINGTHEORY: In 1960 s, Edwin Locke put forward the Goal-setting theory of motivation. This theory states that goal setting is essentially linked to task performance. It states that specific and challenging goals along with appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task performance. The important featuresofgoal-settingtheoryareasfollows: The willingness to work towards attainment of goal is main source of job motivation. Clear, particular and difficult goals are greater motivating factors than easy, general and vague goals. Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better performance. Unambiguous, measurable and clear goals accompanied by a deadline for completion avoids misunderstanding. Goals should be realistic and challenging. This gives an individual afeeling of pride andtriumph when heattainsthem,andsetshim up for attainment of nextgoal. 22

  27. The more challenging the goal, the greater is the reward generally and the more is the passion for achieving it. Better and appropriate feedback of results directs the employee behaviour and contributes to higher performance than absenceof feedback. Feedback is a means of gaining reputation, making clarifications and regulating goal difficulties. It helps employees to work with more involvement andleadsto greaterjob satisfaction. Employees participationin goalisnot alwaysdesirable.Participation of setting goal,however,makesgoalmoreacceptableandleadsto more involvement. goalsetting theory hascertain eventualities suchas: a.Self-efficiency- Self-efficiency is the individual s self-confidence and faith that he has potential of performing the task. Higher the level of self-efficiency, greater will betheefforts put in bytheindividualwhen they facechallenging tasks. 27

  28. While, lower the level of self-efficiency, less will be the efforts put in by the individual or hemight evenquit while meetingchallenges. b.Goal commitment- Goal setting theory assumes that the individual is committed to the goal and will not leave the goal. The goal commitment is dependenton thefollowing factors: Goalsaremadeopen,known and broadcasted. Goalsshouldbeset-selfbyindividual rather thandesignated. Individual s set goals should be consistent with the organizational goals and vision. 28

  29. 4.ReinforcementTheory: This theory is based on the concepts of operand conditioning developed by B.F . Skinner. It argues that the behavior of people is largely determined by its consequence. In other words, those actions that tend to have positive or pleasant consequences tend to be repeated more often in future, while those actions that tend to have repeated negative or unpleasant consequences are lesslikely to berepeated again. The reinforcement theory suggests that managers should try to structure the contingencies of rewards and punishments on the job in such a way that the consequences of effective job behavior are positive while the consequences of ineffective work behavior are negative or unpleasant. The focus of this approach is upon changing or modifying the behavior of people on the job. that iswhy it isalsoregardedasorganizational behaviormodification. 29

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  31. The basic notion underlying reinforcement theory is the concept of reinforcement itself. An event is said to be reinforcing if the event following somebehavior makesthe behavior more likely to occur again in the future. In organizational settings,four basickinds of reinforcement canresultfrom behavior 1.Positive Reinforcement: A method of strengthening behavior with rewards or which is discussed briefly as under: positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed. 2. Avoidance / Negative reinforcement: Used to strengthen behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that would result if the behavior was not performed. 3.Punishment: Used to weaken undesired behaviors by using negative outcomes orunpleasant consequence when the behavior is performed. 4. Extinction: Used to weaken undesired behaviors by simply ignoring ornot reinforcing that behavior. 31

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